CHAPTER 5

TORSION
Objectives
 Effects of torsional loading on a long straight
members: shaft or tube
 Circular cross-section
 Noncircular cross-section
Stress distribution
Angle of twist
Analysis of shafts and tubes
 Statically determinate members
 Statically indeterminate members
Stress concentrations
Residual stress
5.1 Torsional Deformation of a Circular Shaft
Torque
 Moment that tends to twist a member about its longitudinal
axis.
 Design of axles or drive shafts (Vehicles and Machinery)

Circular Shaft under Torsion

 Twisting causes:
 Circle remains circle
 Longitudinal lines deforms into helix
 Cross sections at the ends are flat
Deformation of the rectangular element
Assumption:

If the angle of rotation is small

 Length of shaft and
 Radius remain unchanged
Angle of twist, Φ(x) Fixed End
 Depends on the position x
 Varies along the shaft
 Φ(x) increases as x increases.

Circular Shaft under Torsion

Shear Strain
π  ( x)
    γ   lim θ 
2 C  A along CA
B  A along BA

BD  ρ dφ  dx γ

dφ  dφ   ( x )  
γρ   cons tan t 
dx  dx 

dφ   max
 
dx  c

 ρ
γ   γmax
c
A small element located at a
Shear strain increases with  radial distance  from x axis.
5.2 The Torsion Formula
 An equation that relates the internal torque to the shear stress.
 Circular shaft or Tube.
o Linear-elastic material
o Hooke’s law,
τ Gγ
 Linear variation in shear strain
 Linear variation in shear stress along
any radial line

 ρ
τ    τ max
c
shear stress distribution as a
function of the radial position  of
the element.
Resultant Internal Torque T

Force on dA
dF  τ dA
dT  ρ(τ dA)
 ρ
τ    τ max
Torque c
 ρ
T   ρ(τ dA)   ρ τ maxdA
A 
A
c

τ max
T  dA
ρ 2

c A

J    2 dA : polar moment of inertia

A tmax = maximum shear stress
Torsion formula: T = resultant internal torque
J = polar moment of inertia
Tc T
τ max  τ c = outer radius of the shaft
J J  = intermediate radial distance
Solid Shaft
 Polar Moment of Inertia

dA  2 d 

c c
J    2 dA    2 ( 2d )  2   3d
A o o

 differential ring
J c4
2

 Geometrical property of the circular area

 Always positive
 Units: mm4 or in4
Shear stress distributed:
 Linearly along radial line
 Along an axial plane T
τ
J
Complementary Property of Shear:
Equal shear stress must also act on four
adjacent faces of volume element.
Not only the internal torque T develops a
linear distribution of shear stress along
each radial line in the plane of the cross-
sectional area, but also an associated
shear-stress distribution is developed
along an axial plane.

Shear stress varies linearly along

each radial line of the cross section.
 Failure of a Wooden Shaft due to Torsion
Because of the axial distribution of shear stress, shafts
made from wood tend to split along axial plane when
subjected to excessive torque.

 Wood:
 an anisotropic material
 shear resistance parallel to its grains or fibers is much
less than its resistance perpendicular to the fibers.
Tubular Shaft
 Polar Moment of Inertia

J ( co4  ci4 )
2

 Stress Distribution

Shear stress varies linearly along each radial line of the cross section.
Failure of Tubular Drive Shaft

This tubular drive shaft for a truck was subjected to an

overload resulting in failure caused by yielding of the
material.
Absolute Maximum Torsional Stress
 Maximum shear stress occurs at the outer surface.
 If the shaft subjected to a series of external torque and radius
change, maximum torsional stress could be different from one
section to another.
 Absolute maximum torsional stress is important for design.
 Its location is determined by drawing a torque diagram which is
a plot of the internal torque versus its position x along the shaft’s
length.
 Tc 
Absolute τ max  
 J max

Torque Diagram
IMPORTANT POINTS
 When a shaft having a circular cross section is subjected
to torque, the cross section remains plane while radial lines
rotate.

 For linearly elastic homogeneous material, due to

Hooke’s law, the shear stress along any radial line of the
shaft also varies linearly, from zero at its axis to a
maximum at its outer boundary.
 This maximum shear stress must not exceed the
proportional limit.

 Due to complementary property of shear, the linear shear

stress distribution within the plane of the cross section is
also distributed along an adjacent axial plane of the shaft.
Ch. 5-Torsion 15
IMPORTANT POINTS (Continued)
 The torsion formula is based on the requirement that the
resultant torque on the cross section is equal to the torque
produced by the linear shear stress distribution about the
longitudinal axis of the shaft.

It is necessary that the shaft or tube have a circular cross

section and that it is made of homogeneous material which
has linear-elastic behavior.

Ch. 5-Torsion 16
PROCEDURE FOR ANALYSIS

 Equilibrium
 Section the shaft perpendicular to its axis at the point where
the shear stress is to be determined, and use the necessary free-
body diagram and equations of equilibrium to obtain the
internal torque at the section.

 Section Property
 Compute polar moment of inertia of the cross-sectional area.
For solid section of radius c, J=pc4/2 and for tube of outer
radius c0 and inner radius ci, J=p(c04-ci4)/2

Ch. 5-Torsion 17
PROCEDURE FOR ANALYSIS (Continued)
 Shear Stress
 Specify the radial distance , measured from the center of
cross-section of the point where the shear stress is to be found.
Then apply the torsion formula t = T/J, or if the maximum
shear stress is to be determined use tmax=Tc/J. When
substituting the data, make sure to use a consistent set of units.
 The shear stress acts on the cross section in a direction that is
always perpendicular to . The force it creates must contribute
a torque about the axis of the shaft that is in the same direction
as the internal resultant torque T acting on the section.
Once this direction is established, a volume element located at
the point where t is determined can be isolated, and the
direction of t acting on the remaining three adjacent faces of
the element can be shown.

Ch. 5-Torsion 18
5.3 Power Transmission

 Shafts & Tubes (Circular Cross-sections)

 Power Transmission Members

 Torque:
 power generated by machine
 angular speed of the shaft
Example:

 Drive shaft of a cutting machine

 It must be designed to meet the power requirements of its
motor.
Power
 Work performed per unit of time.
 Work (rotating shaft) = Torque  Angle of Rotation

Td
Instantaneous Power P
dt

d
Shaft’s Angular velocity  (rad/s)
dt

P  T
Power
Units P  T
 SI
o Watts
o 1 W = 1 N . m/s
 FPS
o Ft . lb/s (basic unit)
o Horsepower: 1 hp = 550 f . lb/s (Eng. Practice)

Frequency (shaft rotation), f

 Number of revolution or cycles per second
 Measured in Hertz, Hz
 1 Hz = 1 cycle/s
1 cycle = 2 rad
Angular velocity  = 2  f

Power P  2π f T
Shaft Design
P
Torque: P  2π f T T
2π f
 Determine the size of shaft’s cross-
Tc
section using torsion formula. τ max 
 Linear elastic material J
J T
Design or geometric 
parameter J/c c t allow


J c4
Solid Shaft 2

Tubular Shaft 
J ( co4  ci4 )
2
 Example 5-1: The copper pipe has an outer diameter of 40
mm and an inner diameter of 37 mm. If it is tightly secured
to the wall and three torques are applied to it, determine the
absolute maximum shear stress developed in the pipe.

Ch. 5-Torsion 24
Ch. 5-Torsion 25
 Example 5-2: The 1-in.-diameter bent rod is subjected to the
load shown. Determine the maximum torsional stress in the
rod at a section located through A.

Ch. 5-Torsion 26
Ch. 5-Torsion 27
5.4 Angle of Twist
Angle of twist,  (phi)
 Amount of rotation or twist of one
end of a shaft with respect to its
other end.
 Design of a shaft depends on
restricting the amount of rotation or
twist under applied torque.
 Analyzing reactions on statically
indeterminate shafts.

Example:
Angle of twist of a string drill pipe, used for
drilling oil wells, must be computed.
A Formula for Determining the Angle of Twist, φ (phi) for a shaft

Assumptions
 Circular cross-section- gradually varying along its
length.
 Material: Linear-elastic & homogeneous
 Localized deformations neglected
  Formula
 Method of section
 Differential disk of thickness dx, located at x
 Internal resultant Torque T(x)
 Relative rotation d
 Shear strain γ at an arbitrary radius ρ
dx
d  

t
Hooke’s law 
G
T ( x) 
Torsion formula τ
J ( x)
T ( x) 

J ( x)G
Angle of twist of T( x )
d  dx
the disk J ( x )G
Angle of twist for the entire shaft:
L  = the angle of twist
T ( x )dx
 T(x) = internal torque
0
J ( x )G J(x) = polar moment of inertia
L
G = shear modulus of elasticity
P( x)dx
  Axially loaded bar
0
A( x) E

Constant Torque and Cross-Sectional Area

TL

JG

PL
 Axially loaded bar
AE
Example: Soil auger
 Stress & angle of twist
 Variable loading acts along its length.
How shear modulus of elasticity calculated?

Torsion Testing Machine

 T and  measured between TL

G
a gauge length L J
If shaft has several different constant T, A and G.
TL
 
JG
Sign Convention
 T and  are positive, provided
the thumb is directed outward
from the shaft when the fingers
curl to give the tendency for the
rotation.
Example:
 Determine the angle of twist
of end A with respect to end
D.

Torque Diagram
(80 N .m) LAB
A/ D  
JG
(70 N .m) LBC ( 10 N .m) LCD

JG JG
Ch. 5-Torsion 36
IMPORTANT POINTS
 The angle of twist is determined by
 relating the applied torque to the shear stress using the
torsion formula, t = T / J and
 relating the relative rotation to the shear strain using d =
 dx / .
 Finally these equations are combined by using
Hooke’s law, t = G .

 Since Hooke’s law is used in the development of

the formula for the angle of twist, it is important that:
 the applied torques do not cause yielding of the material,
and
 the material is homogenous and behaves in a linear-elastic
manner.

Ch. 5-Torsion 37
PROCEDURE FOR ANALYSIS
 The angle of twist of one end of a shaft or tube with respect to the other
end can be determined.
L
T ( x )dx TL
 
TL
 
0
J ( x )G JG JG
Internal Torque
 The internal torque is found at a point on the axis of the shaft by using
o the method of sections and
o the equation of moment equilibrium, applied along the shaft’s axis.
 If the torque varies along the shaft’s length,
o a section should be made at the arbitrary position x along the shaft
o and the torque represented as a function of x.
 If several constant external torques act on the shaft between its ends,
o the internal torque in each segment of the shaft, between any two
external torques, must be determined.
o The result can be represented as torque diagram.
Ch. 5-Torsion 38
 Angle of Twist

 When the circular cross-sectional area varies along the shaft’s axis,
the polar moment of inertia must be expressed as a function of its
position x along the axis.
 If the polar moment of inertia or the internal torque suddenly
changes between the ends of the shaft, then
L
T ( x )dx TL
 
0
J ( x )G JG

must be applied to each segment for which J,G and T are

continuous or constant.

 When the internal torque in each segment is determined,

o be sure to use a consistent sign convention for the shaft.
o also make sure that a consistent set of units is used when
substituting numerical data into the equations.

Ch. 5-Torsion 39
 Example 5-3: The rotating flywheel-and-shaft, when
brought to a sudden stop at D, begins to oscillate clockwise-
counter-clockwise such that a point A on the outer edge of
the flywheel is displaced through a 6-mm arc. Determine the
maximum shear stress developed in the tubular A-36 steel
shaft due to this oscillation. The shaft has an inner diameter
of 24 mm and an outer diameter of 32 mm. The bearings at
B and C allow the shaft to rotate freely, whereas the support
at D holds the shaft fixed.

Ch. 5-Torsion 40
Ch. 5-Torsion 41
Ch. 5-Torsion 42
 Example 5-4: The 60-mm-diameter solid shaft is made of
2014-T6 aluminum and is subjected to the distributed and
concentrated torsional loadings shown. Determine the angle
of twist at the free end A of the shaft.

Ch. 5-Torsion 43
Ch. 5-Torsion 44
Ch. 5-Torsion 45
5.5 Statically Indeterminate Torque-Loaded Members
 Moment equation of equilibrium is not
adequate to determine the unknown
torques acting on the shaft.

M x  0;
T  TA  TB  0

 Condition of compatibility
Fixed End Supports:  A/B  0
TL
 Material is linear-elastic 
JG
TA LAC TB LBC
 0  LBC 
JG JG TA  T  
L  LAC  LBC  L 
L 
TB  T  AC 
 L 
PROCEDURE FOR ANALYSIS
The unknown torques in statically indeterminate shafts are
determined by satisfying equilibrium, compatibility, and
torque-displacement requirements for the shaft.

 Equilibrium
 Draw a free-body diagram of the shaft in order to identify
all the torques that act on it.
 Write the equations of moment equilibrium about the axis
of the shaft.

Ch. 5-Torsion 47
PROCEDURE FOR ANALYSIS
 Compatibility

 To write the compatibility equations, investigate the way the

shaft will twist when subjected to the external loads, and give
consideration as to how the supports constrain the shaft when it
is twisted.
 Express the compatibility condition in terms of the rotational
displacements caused by the reactive torques.
 Use a torque displacement relation, to relate the unknown
torques to the unknown displacements.
 Solve the equilibrium and compatibility equations for the
unknown reactive torques.
 If any of the magnitudes have a negative numerical value, it
indicates that this torque act in the opposite sense of direction
to that indicated on the free-body diagram.

Ch. 5-Torsion 48
 Example 5-5: If the shaft is subjected to a uniform
distributed torque of t = 20 kN.m/m, determine the
maximum shear stress developed in the shaft. The shaft is
made of 2014-T6 aluminum alloy and is fixed at A and C.

Ch. 5-Torsion 49
Ch. 5-Torsion 50
Ch. 5-Torsion 51
5.6 Solid Noncircular Shafts
Noncircular cross-sections (not axisymmetric)
 Shear stress distribution over the cross-section is very
complex.
 Cross-section bulge or warp when the shaft is twisted.

Example:
Deformation of a square element under torque
Stress distribution (within a shaft of square cross-section)
 Corners subjected to zero shear stress & shear strain.
 Maximum shear stress occurs on the edge that is closest to center
axis.
Comparison of sections
 Circular cross-section is most efficient.
o Smaller maximum shear stress
o Smaller angle of twist compared to noncircular shafts having the
same cross-sectional area subjected to the same torque
5.7 Thin-Walled Tubes Having Closed Cross Sections

Tube properties:
 Arbitrary cross-section
 Thin walled
 Closed, i.e. no breaks or
slits along its length
 Variable thickness

Analysis assumption
 Stress is uniformly
distributed across the
thickness
 tavg = the average shear stress
T T = the resultant internal torque
t avg 
2tAm t = the thickness of the tube
Am = the mean area
Am

Shear flow can be written as:

T
q
2 Am

Angle of twist
 Material linear-elastic
TL ds
4 Am2 G  t

IMPORTANT POINTS

 Shear flow q is the product of the tube’s thickness and the

average shear stress. This value is constant at all points
along the tube’s cross section. As a result, the largest
average shear stress on the cross section occurs where the
tube’s thickness is smaller.

Both shear flow and the average shear stress act tangent
to the wall of the tube at all points and in a direction so as to
contribute to the resultant torque.

Ch. 5-Torsion 58
 Example 5-6: If the solid shaft is made from red brass
C83400 and it is subjected to a torque T = 6 kip.ft at B,
determine the maximum shear stress developed in segments
AB and BC.

Ch. 5-Torsion 59
Ch. 5-Torsion 60
Ch. 5-Torsion 61
Ch. 5-Torsion 62
Ch. 5-Torsion 63
Ch. 5-Torsion 64
5.10 Residual Stress
When a shaft is subjected to plastic shear strains
caused by the torsion, removal of the torque will cause
some shear stress to remain in the shaft. This stress is
referred to as a residual stress.
Ch. 5 Assignment: Due until Thursday, July 19th midnight (CDT)

Problem numbers: 5-11, 5-18, 5-58, 5-75, 5-87, 5-102, 5-

114

Ch. 5-Torsion 66
Ch. 5-Torsion 67
Thank You
Questions?

Ch. 5-Torsion 68