Business Research Methods

Research
 “The systematic investigation into and study of materials, sources, etc., in
order to establish facts and reach new conclusions” Oxford English dictionary

 “A process of finding out information and investigating the unknown to solve

a problem” (Maylor & Blackmon, 2005)

 “Something that people undertake in order to find out things in a

systematic way, thereby increasing their knowledge” Saunders et al
(2007, p.5)
 Business research
 • What is Business Research?
 “The application of the scientific method in searching for the truth about
business phenomena. These activities include defining business opportunities
and problems, generating and evaluating ideas, monitoring performance and
understanding the business processes” (Zikmund, 2010, pg#5)
 “Research is an organized, systematic and objective scientific inquiry or
investigation into a specific problem or issues, undertaken with the aim of
finding answers or solutions to it “ (Bryman & Bell, 2007)
 According to Clifford woody, research comprises defining and redefining
problems, formulating hypothesis or suggested solutions, collecting, organizing
and evaluating data, making deductions and reaching conclusions; to
determine whether they fit the formulating hypothesis.
 Characteristics of research

 Data for the research is collected systematically

 Data for the research is interpreted systematically
 There is a clear purpose of the research study
 Uniqueness of Business and
Management Research
 According to Easterby-Smith et al. (2002) (as cited in Saunders,
Lewis and Thornhill, 2007), business and management research is
unique because of the following:
 (a) the way in which managers (and researchers) draw on
knowledge developed by other disciplines;
 (b) the fact that managers tend to be powerful and busy people.
Therefore, they are unlikely to allow research access unless they
can see personal or commercial advantage; and
 (c) the requirement for the research to have some practical
consequence.
 Objectives of Research

 Is to gain familiarity with a phenomenon, problem or to achieve

new insights into it (exploratory or formative research studies).
 To analyze and describe fairly the characteristics of a particular
individual, situation or a group (descriptive research).
 To determine the frequency with which something occurs or with
which it is associated with something else (studies with this object
known as diagnostic research).
 To test a hypothesis of a causal relationship between variables.
(such studies are known as hypothesis testing research)
 Alternatives to Research
 Without research the common sources of perceptions,
information and knowledge include the following:
 (a) Authority which is accepting something as true or as a fact
because it comes from people of authority;
 (b) Tradition refers to accepting something as true or as a fact
because it is based on the past – passed on from previous
generation and become a norm;
 (c) Common sense refers to ordinary reasoning which may be
built from a person’s experiences and sometimes tradition;
 Media myth refers to arriving at conclusions based on a reality
created by the media
 (e) Personal experience refers to learning through our sensory
impressions and knowledge – ‘seeing is believing’.
 Types of Research

 There are eleven types of research depending on whether

it is primarily “fundamental” or “applied” in nature. They
are as follows:
 Applied research or decisional research is using
existing knowledge as an aid to the solution of some
given problem or set of problems.
 Fundamental research or basic or pure research,
seeks to extend the boundaries of knowledge in a given
area with no necessary immediate application to existing
problems.
 Types of Research

 Futuristic research is the systematic study of possible future

conditions. It analysis on how those conditions might change as a
result of the implementation of policies and actions, and the
consequences of these policies and actions.
 Descriptive research includes surveys and fact-finding enquiries
of different kinds. It tries to discover answers to the questions who,
what, when and sometimes how. Here the researcher attempts to
describe or define a subject, often by creating a profile of a group
of problems, people, or events. The major purpose of descriptive
research is description of the state of affairs as it exists at present.
 Types of Research

 Explanatory research: Explanatory research goes

beyond description and attempts to explain the reasons
for the phenomenon that the descriptive research only
observed. The research would use theories or at least
hypothesis to account for the forces that caused a certain
phenomenon to occur.
 Types of Research

 Predictive research: If we can provide a plausible

explanation for an event after it has occurred, it is
desirable to be able to predict when and in what
situations the event will occur. This research is just as
rooted in theory as explanation. This research calls for a
high order of inference making. In business research,
prediction is found in studies conducted to evaluate
specific courses of action or to forecast current and future
values.
 Types of Research

 Analytical research: The researcher has to use facts or

information already available, and analyze these to make
a critical evaluation of the material.
 Quantitative research: Quantitative research is based
on the measurement of quantity or amount. It is
applicable to phenomena that can be expressed in terms
of quantity.
 Types of Research

 Qualitative research: It is concerned with qualitative

phenomenon (i.e.) phenomena relating to or involving quality
or kind. This type of research aims at discovering the
underlying motives and desires, using in-depth interviews for
the purpose. Other techniques of such research are word
association test, sentence completion test, story completion
tests and similar other projective techniques. Attitude or
opinion research i.e., research designed to find out how
people feel or what they think about a particular subject or
institution is also qualitative research.
 Types of Research

 Conceptual research: Conceptual research is that

related to some abstract idea(s) or theory. It is generally
used by philosophers and thinkers to develop new
concepts or to reinterpret existing ones.
 Types of Research

 Empirical research: It is appropriate when proof is

sought that certain variables affect other variables in
some way. Evidence gathered through experiments or
empirical studies is today considered to be the most
powerful support possible for a give hypothesis.
 Types of investigation
in research
 Experiment: The researcher will manipulate an independent variable
in order to determine whether it has an impact on a dependent
variable (laboratory experiment & filed experiment).
 Survey: The researcher use methods which investigates the opinions
and feelings of people. Information is collected through questionnaire
or interview in many cases.
 Case study: The researcher makes a detailed study of a particular
single case. The researcher usually aims to provide in-depth
understanding of the specific features of the case and its related
settings. Data are collected through observation, interview and
document research.
 Research design
 Qualitative research Understanding of human behavior and the
reasons that govern such behavior. Asking a broad question and
collecting data in the form of words, images, video etc that is analyzed
searching for themes. This type of research aims to investigate a
question without attempting to quantifiably measure variables or look
to potential relationships between variables. It is viewed as more
restrictive in testing be expensive and time consuming, and typically
limited to a single set of research subjects. Qualitative research is
often used as a method of exploratory research as a basis for later
quantitative research hypotheses. Qualitative research is linked with
the philosophical and theoretical stance of social constructionism.
 Quantitative research Systematic empirical investigation of
quantitative properties and phenomena and their relationships.
Asking a narrow question and collecting numerical data to analyze
utilizing statistical methods. The quantitative research designs are
experimental, correlational, and survey (or descriptive). Statistics
derived from quantitative research can be used to establish the
existence of associative or causal relationships between variables.
Quantitative research is linked with the philosophical and
theoretical stance of positivism.
Research Strategy
The Process of Inductive
 The Scientific Method:
An Overview

Assess Formulate Statement

Design
relevant concepts & of
research
existing Propositions Hypotheses
knowledge

Acquire Analyze & Provide

empirical evaluate explanation-
data data state new
problem
Strength and Weaknesses of
Quantitative research
Strength and Weaknesses of
Qualitative research
 Determining When to Conduct
Business Research
Availability of Data Benefits
Time Constraints Nature of the Decision vs. Costs
Is the infor- Does the value
Is sufficient time Is the decision Conducting
Yes mation already Yes Yes of the research Yes
available before of considerable
a managerial
on hand
strategic
information Business
inadequate exceed the cost
decision
for making
or tactical
of conducting Research
must be made? importance?
the decision? research?

No No No No

Do Not Conduct Business Research

 Value versus Costs
 Potential Value of a Business Research Effort Should
Exceed Its Estimated Costs
 Value Should Exceed
Estimated Costs
Costs
Value •Research
expenditures
•Decreased certainty
•Delay of business
•Increased likelihood
decision and
of a correct decision
possible disclosure
•Improved business
of information to
performance and
rivals
resulting higher
•Possible erroneous
profits
research results
 Characteristics of a Good Research
 Aim
 Rigor
 Testability
 Replicability
 Precision and Confidence
 Objectivity
 Generalizability
 Parsimony
 Research ethic

 Ethics are norms or behaviour in maintaining integrity

and high standards or relationships with others. They
refer to the appropriateness of the behaviour in relation
to the rights of those who will become the subject of the
research or who may be affected by the pursuant of the
research.
 Privacy, Confidentiality, : key ethical issues
 Research Ethics
 Non-disclosure items, Protection of Information
 Deception - when the participants are told only part of
the truth
 Ethical issues may be related to a researcher attempting
to work or data of other researcher
 Secondary data is subjected to ethical issue.
 What is Theory

 A formal logical explanation of some events that includes

predictions of how things related to one
another….(Zikmund, 2010, P39)
 Two Purposes Of Theory
 Prediction
 Understanding
 Theory
 A coherent set of general propositions used as principles
of explanation of the apparent relationships of certain
observed phenomena.
 Concept (or Construct)
 A generalized idea about a class of objects, attributes,
occurrences, or processes that has been given a name
 Building blocks that abstract reality
 “leadership,” “productivity,” and “morale”
 “gross national product,” “asset,” and “inflation”
A Ladder Of Abstraction
For Concepts

Increasingly more abstract

Vegetation

Fruit

Banana

Reality
 Scientific Business Researchers Operate
at Two Levels
 Abstract level
– concepts
– propositions
 Empirical level
– variables
– hypotheses
 Definitions
 Abstract level -In theory development, the level of
knowledge expressing a concept that exists only as an
idea or a quality apart from an object.
 Empirical level -Level of knowledge reflecting that which
is verifiable by experience or observation.
Theory Building A Process Of Increasing
Abstraction

Theories

Increasingly more abstract

Propositions

Concepts

Observation of objects
and events (reality )
Concepts are Abstractions of Reality

Abstract
CONCEPTS
Level

Empirical OBSERVATION OF OBJECTS

Level AND EVENTS (REALITY)
 Abstract Level
 Concepts abstract reality.
 Propositions are statements concerned with the
relationships among concepts.
 Proposition at Abstract Level

Concept A Concept B
(Reinforcement) (Habits)

Hypothesis at Empirical
Level
Dollar bonus for
sales volume Always makes
over quota four sales calls
a day
 A hypothesis is a proposition that is empirically testable.
It is an empirical statement concerned with the
relationship among variables.
 A variable is anything that may assume different
numerical values.
 Problem Definition, Research
Objectives, Research Questions
and Research Proposal
 Good Decisions Start with a Good
Problem Definition
 Decision Statement
– A written expression of the key question(s) that the
research user wishes to answer.
 Problem Definition
– The process of defining and developing a decision
statement and the steps involved in translating it into more
precise research terminology, including a set of research
objectives.

6–48
EXHIBIT 6.1 Defining Problems Can Be Difficult

6–49
 The Problem-Definition Process
 Problem
– When there is a difference between the current conditions and
a more preferable set of conditions.
 Problems Mean Gaps
– Business performance is worse than expected business
performance.
– Actual business performance is less than possible business
performance.
– Expected business performance is greater than possible
business performance.
6–50
EXHIBIT 6.2 The Problem-Definition Process

6–51
 Understand the Business Decision
 Situation Analysis
– The gathering of background information to familiarize
researchers and managers with the decision-making
environment.
 Interview Process
– Develop many alternative problem statements
– Think about possible solutions to the problem
– Make lists
– Be open-minded
6–52
 Understand the Business Decision
 Identifying Symptoms
– Interrogative techniques
 Asking multiple what, where, who, when, why, and how questions
about what has changed.
– Probing
 An interview technique that tries to draw deeper and more elaborate
explanations from the discussion.

6–53
EXHIBIT 6.3 What Has Changed?

6–54
EXHIBIT 6.4 Symptoms Can Be Confusing

6–55
 Writing Managerial Decision Statements
into Corresponding Research Objectives

 Decision statements must be translated into research

objectives.
– Once the decision statement is written, the research essentially
answers the question, “What information is needed to address
this situation?”
 Research objectives are the deliverables of the research
project.

6–56
EXHIBIT 6.5 Translating Decision Statements

6–57
 Determine the Unit of Analysis
 Unit of Analysis
– Indicates what or who should provide the data and at what level of
aggregation.
 Individuals (such as customers, employees, and owners)
 Households (families, extended families, and so forth)
 Organizations (businesses and business units)
 Departments (sales, finance, and so forth)
 Geographical areas
 Objects (products, advertisements, and so forth).
– Multi-level analysis studies variables measured at more than one unit
of analysis. 6–58
 Determine the Relevant Variable
 What is a Variable?
– Anything that varies or changes from one instance to another;
can exhibit differences in value, usually in magnitude or
strength, or in direction.
 What is a Constant?
– Something that does not change; is not useful in addressing
research questions.

6–59
 Types of Variables
 Continuous variable
– Can take on a range of
quantitative values.
 Categorical variable
– Indicates membership in some
group.
– Also called classificatory
variable.
6–60
 Dependent variable
– A process outcome or a variable
that is predicted and/or
explained by other variables.
 Independent variable
– A variable that is expected to
influence the dependent variable
in some way.
EXHIBIT 6.6 Example Business Decision Situations, Corresponding Research Hypotheses, and Variable
Descriptions

6–61
 Writing Research Objectives and
Questions
 Research Questions
– Express the research objectives in terms of questions that
can be addressed by research.
– Help to develop well-formulated, specific hypotheses that
can be empirically tested.
– Help the researcher design a study that will produce useful
results.

6–62
 Clarity in Research
Questions and Hypotheses
 Research Questions
– The researcher’s translation of the problem into a specific inquiry.
 Provide input that can be used as a standard for selecting from among
alternative solutions.
 Hypotheses
– Statements that can be empirically tested.
 State what is expected to be found through the study.
 Managerial Action Standard
– A specific performance criterion upon which a decision can be based.
6–63
EXHIBIT 6.7 Influence of Decision Statement of Marketing Problem on
Research Objectives and Research Designs

6–64
 How Much Time Should Be
Spent on Problem
Definition?
 Budget constraints usually influence how much effort is
spent on problem definition.
 The more important the decision faced by management, the
more resources should be allocated toward problem
definition.
 The time taken to identify the correct problem is usually
time well spent.

6–65
Factors which influence the choice of
a research topic

You Supervisor Gaps in

Literature

Data Sponsor Society

Source (Trend and News)
 Some topics to avoid
 Common/over-used topics
 Topics related to religion/controversy
 General/broad topics
 Topics that are too narrow
 Politics related topics
 Research Gaps (the discrepancies in existing research literature
which needs to be addressed)

 Missing issues in the literature

 Limited discussions in the literature
 Conflicts in theoretical approach
 Missing theoretical model
 Conflicts in empirical methods (data collection and analysis)
 Mixed previous empirical results
 Less contextual evaluation or geographical representation
 Complex (limited previous results, conflicts, absence, mixed
view)
 The Research Proposal
 Research Proposal
– A written statement of the research design.
 Uses for the Proposal
– As a planning tool
– As a contract
 Funded Business Research
– Basic research usually performed by academic researchers that
is financially supported by some public or private institution as
in federal government grants.
6–70
 Formulating Research Proposal
 University may require you to produce a research
proposal prior to setting out on your dissertation or
research project.
 This can vary from a simple statement of intent to a full-
blown assessment, which might include things like:
 A working title, encapsulating the aims, scope and
strategy of your study
 A critical literature review of your research area, out
of which you may be expected to derive research
questions
 A short statement of your overall research perspective
or strategy
 Specific aims and objectives for your study
 How you would intend to gain access to appropriate
sites, data or informants for your study
 the methods of data collection you intend to use and a
justification of their appropriateness, strengths and
weaknesses in relation to your study, including relevant
references to the literature
 how you would construct your sample frame and an outline of
your sampling strategy
 an indication of what type of analysis you would wish to
perform on your data
 any problems you might anticipate (e.g. in access or sampling,
etc.) and how you might resolve these
 a consideration of any ethical or professional issues raised by
your proposals
 a research timetable or timeline
Reviewing the Literature
 Objectives
Define Literature review
Explain the need for literature review
Appreciate the steps in literature review
Know the sources of various literature
Have critical mind-set for literature review
Appreciate how to use the American Psychological
Association (APA) Referencing Style
 The Meaning of Literature Review
 Literature review is “a synthesis of available resources and
materials with a strong relation to the topic in question,
accompanied by a description and a critical evaluation and
comparative analysis of each work” (Boateng, 2014).
 Notes:
1. Synthesis
2. Available resources and materials
3. Strong relation to the topic
4. …Description and a critical evaluation and comparative
analysis of each work
 Descriptive and Analytical Review
 Descriptive Review
“A study by Uche (2000) on unemployment in the banking industry in
Nigeria highlighted that inflation affected turnover of banks which had
also had an effect on salary payments. Over 2000 bank employees lost
their jobs by the end of 1999. Thakur (2005) discussed that lack of
capital for start-up initiatives and high interest rates on loans stalled
entrepreneurial ventures and contributed to unemployment or the lack
of job opportunities. In a recent study on unemployment in Egypt,
Salia (2011) found political instability, poor governance and lack of
foreign direct investment to be the critical factors influencing
unemployment”.
 Analytical Review
“Literature demonstrates that the key factors which
contribute to unemployment in Africa have tended to
change over time. In the late 1990s researchers argue that
inflation and low wages contributed to unemployment
(Uche, 2000; Benson, 2003). A study by Uche (2000) on
unemployment in the banking industry in Nigeria
highlighted that inflation affected the turnover of banks
which had also had effects in salary payments. Over 2000
bank employees lost their jobs by the end of 1999.
On the other hand, by 2004, researchers discussed that lack of capital for
start-up initiatives and high interest rates on loans stalled entrepreneurial
ventures and contributed to unemployment or the lack of job
opportunities (Thakur, 2005). A comparative study (Kinson, 2006) on the
SME industry in Ghana and Uganda shared similar findings on the effect
of start-up capital and interest loans on entrepreneurship and
unemployment. In a recent study in Egypt, Salia (2011) found political
instability, poor governance and lack of foreign direct investment to be
the critical factors influencing unemployment. Other studies in Cote
d’Ivoire and Sierra Leone attest to these findings (Johnson, 2009; Pern,
2010).

In effect, unemployment in Africa may be viewed from a multi-faceted

perspective. It cannot be reduced to one single factor”.
The literature review process

Source: Saunders et al. (2009)

Goals of Literature Review (Neuman,
2014)
 To demonstrate a familiarity with a body of knowledge
and establish credibility. A review tells a reader that the
researcher knows the research in an area and knows the
major issues. A good review increases a reader’s
confidence in the researcher’s professional competence,
ability, and background
 To show the path of prior research and how a current
project is linked to it. A review outlines the direction of
research on a question and shows the development of
knowledge. A good review places a research project in a
context and demonstrates its relevance by making
connections to a body of knowledge
 To integrate and summarize what is known in an area. A
review pulls together and synthesizes different results. A
good review points out areas in which prior studies agree,
disagree, and major questions remain. It collects what is
known up to a point in time and indicates the direction
for future research.
 To learn from others and stimulate new ideas. A review
tells what others have found so that a researcher can
benefit from the efforts of others. A good review
identifies blind alleys and suggests hypotheses for
replication. It divulges procedures, techniques, and
research designs worth copying so that a researcher can
better focus hypotheses and gain new insights
 Types of Literature Review
 Context review. A common type of review in which the
author links a specific study to a larger body of
knowledge. It often appears at the beginning of a
research report and introduces the study by situating it
within a broader framework and showing how it
continues or builds on a developing line of thought or
study
 Historical review. A specialized review in which the author
traces an issue over time. It can be merged with a
theoretical or methodological review to show how a
concept, theory, or research method developed over time
 Integrative review. A common type of review in which the
author presents and summarizes the current state of
knowledge on a topic, highlighting agreements and
disagreements within it. This review is often combined
with a context review or may be published as an
independent article as a service to other researchers
 Methodological review. A specialized type of integrative
review in which the author compares and evaluates the
relative methodological strength of various studies and
shows how different methodologies (e.g., research
designs, measures, samples) account for different results.
 Self-study review. A review in which an author
demonstrates his or her familiarity with a subject area. It
is often part of an educational program or course
requirement.
 Theoretical review. A specialized review in which the
author presents several theories or concepts focused on
the same topic and compares them on the basis of
assumptions, logical consistency, and scope of
explanation.
 Steps in Literature Review
 Decide on a topic
 Identify and locate literature
 Ensure Relevance
 Record and Retrieve
 Review and summarize
 Write and revise a topic
 Identifying and locating Literature

 Define the boundaries, constraints or limitations of your

search
Time
Types of materials (primary, secondary and tertiary)
Publication date
Language
Geographical focus
 Developing Keywords
 To identify suitable references in online databases
such as the Social Sciences Citation Index, you need
to work out keywords to enter into the search engine:
 Business dictionaries (see below for online sources)
can help you to define your area of research and
identify changes in the language used to describe the
subject:
– Collins Dictionary of Business, 2nd edition (1995)
– The IEBM Dictionary of Business and Management (1999)
– e.g., the term 'personnel management' has now been
largely superseded by 'HRM' and 'payment systems' are
now more widely referred to as 'reward management'
 Searching Online Sources )

Searching the Internet - Saunders et al. (2003

Saunders et al. (2003)

 Online Sources
 Search Engines: www.google.com; www.scholar.google.com
 Online databases:
 EBSCOhost: www.search.epnet.com
 Emerald: www.emeraldinsght.com
 JSTOR: www.jstor.org
 Palgrave MacMillan Journal: www.palgrave.journals.com
 Sage Journals Online: www.online.sagepub.com
 ScienceDirect: www.sciencedirect.com
 Wiley: www.onlinelibrary.wiley.com
 African Journal Online (AJOL): www.ajolonline.com
 Directory of Open Access Journals (DOAJ): http://doaj.org
 Social Science Research Network: www.ssrn.com
 Literature sources available
Literature sources available

Saunders et al. (2009)

Figure 3.2 Literature sources available
Reading the Existing Literature
 Start with references in bibliographies from books and
journal articles and move on to using online
sources for your literature review
 In some areas of research, there are very many
references
– try to identify the major ones and work outwards from
there
 Take good notes, including the details of the material
you read
– it is infuriating to find that you forgot to record the volume
number of an article you need to include in your
 You will also need to think of synonyms and try to match
your language to that of the source you are searching
– e.g., performance management may be referred to in
practitioner publications as 'employee evaluation' or 'appraisal'
 You will be able to revise and refine your research
questions in the process of reviewing the literature
 A competent critical review of the literature can affirm
your credibility as someone who is knowledgeable in your
chosen area
Issues to Identify in the Existing Literature
 What is already known about this area?
 What concepts and theories are relevant to this area?
 What research methods and research strategies have
been employed in studying this area?
 Are there any significant controversies?
 Are there any inconsistencies in findings relating to
this area?
 Are there any unanswered research questions in this
area?
Critical Reading Skills
 Your literature review should be critical rather than merely
descriptive, so it is worth recording relevant critical points as
you take notes
 Developing a critical approach is not necessarily one of simply
criticizing the work of others
 It entails moving beyond mere description and asking
questions about the significance of the work:
– How does the item relate to others you have read?
– Are there any apparent strengths and deficiencies - perhaps in terms
of methodology or in terms of the credibility of the conclusions
drawn?
– What theoretical ideas have influenced the item?
 Writing up your literature
review:
 Write up your review part way through your reading in
order to identify gaps/weaknesses
 Keep the focus on your study and not the literature
 Make sure the structure leads the reader through the
key issues e.g. signposting
 Make sure that the literature review is framed by your
research questions
 Where possible, use original sources rather than other
people’s review of literature(s)
 Plagiarism
Four common forms

 Stealing material from another source

 Submitting material written by another

 Copying material without quotation marks

 Paraphrasing material without documentation

Adapted from Park (2003), cited in Easterby-Smith et al. (2008)

APA STYLE
 Basic APA Research
Paper Elements

 Structure and content

 Clear and concise organization
 Mechanics of style
 Tables and figures
 Parenthetical citations
 References
 Getting Started
General Document Formatting
 Setting up a Word document
– Select Font/Font Size
 Times New Roman
 Font Size 12
– 1” margins all around
 Left justified with right ragged edge
– Double spaced
 All paper elements should be double
spaced except in-text table/figure notation
 Indent the first line of all paragraphs
 Title Page Elements

Header
 Running head and paper title
 Page numbers

Title page body

 Paper Title
 Your Name
 Institution
 The university pledge
 Basic APA Elements of a
Research Paper
 Abstract
 Sample APA style research paper
Basic Elements of a Research Paper
 Introduction
 Body of paper
 In-text citations
Parenthetical
Tables and figures
 Conclusion
 References
 Reference page format
 Order of source information for each resource
 Order of all sources on reference page (alphabetized)
 Hanging indent-5 spaces
 Heading Levels
Section Headings: 6th Edition of APA
Level One Headings: Centered, bold upper and lowercase

Method

Level Two Headings: Left justified, bold upper and lowercase

Sample and Participant Selection

Level Three Headings: Indented, boldface, lowercase paragraph heading with a period.

Personality and self-esteem.

Level Four Section Headings: Indented, boldface, italicized, lowercase paragraph heading with
a period.

Self-esteem measurements.

Level Five Section Headings: Indented, italicized, lowercase paragraph heading with a period.

Participant selection.
 Quotation Rules

 Frame all quotes

 Punctuation goes inside quotation marks
 Block quotes:
– Any quote longer than four lines of text (or at the professor’s discretion)
– Indent each line of the quote
– Omit quotation marks
– Single space
 Tables and Figures
Presentation
Table 1

Correlations Among and Descriptive Statistics For Key Study Variables

Dist.

M (SD) Sex Age Income Educ. Relig. Intol.

Sex 1.53 (.50) .07 -.09 .02 .14 .06

Age 31.88 (10.29) .08 .19* .20* .01

Income 2.60 (1.57) .04 -.14 -.09

Education 3.44 (1.06) -.29* -.06

Relig. 1.21 (.30) -.19*

Dist. Intol. 3.75 (1.19)

Notes. N’s range from 107 to 109 due to occasional missing data. For sex, 0 = male, 1 = female.

BHF = babies hoped for. Dist. Intol. = distress intolerance. Relig. = religiosity.

* p < .05.
Figure 1. This simple path model, adapted from results in a Journal of Consumer Behaviour
paper, is an example of a figure.
 Extras
 Following the supervisor’s specific instructions
 Using the MS Word References tab or other formatting software
 Whole numbers under 10 are spelled out while whole numbers over
10 are numerical.
 Use full name of source the first time and then refer to source by
last name in subsequent references
 Article titles are not framed with quotation marks in the reference
list
 When there are more than three sources in a parenthetical citation,
replace all but the first name with “et al.” after the first use of that
citation
 Do not cite Wikipedia…just don’t
 References
 Format for Periodicals
 Author, A. A., & Author, B. B. (Year). Title of article. Title of Periodical,
V(n), p-p.

 An Article from an Electronic Journal (E-Journal)

 Author, A. A., & Author, B. B. (Year). Title of article. Title of Periodical,
V(n), p-p. Retrieved from http://www.xxxx.

 Reference to a Magazine Article

 Chase, J. (1995, May). The wonderland economy. INC., 16-24

 Reference to a Newspaper Article

 Author, A. A. (Year, Month, day). Title of article. Name of the newspaper, pp.
 References to Books
 Author, A. A., & Author, B. B. (Year). Title of work. City
of Publication, State/Country: Publisher
 Author, A. A.(Ed.) (Year). Title of work. City of
Publication, State/Country: Publisher
 Author, A. A. (Year). Title of work. Retrieved from
http://www.xxxx.
 References to chapter in an edited Books
 Author, A. A (Year). Title of chapter. In A. A. Editor, B.
B. Editor, & C. C. Editor (Eds.), Title of book (pp.
xxx-xxx) City of Publication, State/Country: Publisher
 References to a Technical and Research Reports
 Author, A. A., & Author, B. B. (Year). Title of work (Report
Number). City of Publication, State/Country: Publisher
 References to a Corporate Author, Government Reports
 Name of organization or Government agency (Year). Title of
report. City of Publication, State/Country: Publisher
 References to a Thesis or Dissertation
 Author, A. A. (Year). Title of thesis or dissertation. (Master’s
or/Doctoral dissertation/theis, Name of Institution).
Retrieved from http://www.xxxx.
 References to Conference Papers
 Author, A. A. (Year). Title of paper. Paper presented at (Name of
Organization/Conference, City, Country, Date(s).

 Reference to Unpublished and Informally Published Works

 Author, A. A. (Year). Title of manuscript. Unpublished manuscript or
Manuscript submitted for publication.

 Reference to Informally Published Works Online

 Author, A. A. (Year). Title of manuscript. Retrieved from
http://www.xxxx.

 Reference to a Dictionary or Encyclopaedia

 Chapman, R. L. (Ed.). (1992). Roget’s international thesaurus (5th ed.).
New York, NY: Harper Collins Publishers
 Research designs and
methods
 A Research Design provides a framework
for the collection and analysis of data. Choice
of research design reflects decisions about
priorities given to the dimensions of the
research process.
• A Research Method is simply a technique for collecting
data. Choice of research method reflects decisions about the
type of instruments or techniques to be used.
Criteria in social research

 Reliability – are measures consistent?

 Replication/replicability – is study
repeatable?

 Validity – are conclusions well-

founded?
 Types of validity

 Measurement (or construct) validity – do measures reflect

concepts?

 Internal validity – are causal relations between variables real?

 External validity – can results be generalized beyond the research

setting?

 Ecological validity – are findings applicable to everyday life?

 Alternative criteria in qualitative
research

 Credibility, parallels internal validity - i.e. how believable are the

findings?

 Transferability, parallels external validity - i.e. do the findings apply to

other contexts?

 Dependability, parallels reliability - i.e. are the findings likely to apply

at other times?

 Confirmability, parallels objectivity - i.e. has the investigator allowed

his or her values to intrude to a high degree?
 Types of Research Design
 Exploratory Design
 Descriptive Design
 Causal/Explanatory Design
Types of research design

1. Experimental
2. Cross-sectional
3. Longitudinal
4. Case study
5. Comparative
 Experimental design
elements
 Random assignment of subjects to
experimental and control groups,
 Pre-testing of both groups,
 Independent variable manipulated; all other
variables held constant,
 Post-testing of both groups,
 Computation and analysis of group differences

Bryman: Social Research Methods, 4th edition

 Threats to internal validity
 Other (non-experimental) events may have caused the
changes observed (‘history’)
 Subjects may become sensitized to ‘testing’
 People change over time in any event (‘maturation’)
 Non-random ‘selection’ could explain differences
 ‘Ambiguity about the direction of causal influence’
because sometimes the temporal sequence is unclear
 Threats to external
validity
1. Interaction of selection and treatment
2. Interaction of setting and treatment
3. Interaction of history and treatment
4. Interaction effects of pretesting
5. Reactive effects of experimental arrangements
 Cross-sectional design

A cross-sectional design entails the collection of data on

“

more than one case (usually quite a lot more than one)
and at a single point in time in order to collect a body of
quantitative or quantifiable data in connection with two
or more variables (usually many more than two), which
are then examined to detect patterns of association.”
 …..and survey research?

“Survey research comprises a cross-sectional design in relation to

which data are collected predominantly by questionnaire or by
structured interview on more than one case (usually quite a lot
more than one) and at a single point in time in order to collect a
body of quantitative or quantifiable data in connection with two or
more variables (usually many more than two), which are then
examined to detect patterns of association.”

Bryman: Social Research Methods, 4th edition

 Cross-sectional design

Bryman: Social Research Methods, 4th edition

 Evaluating cross-sectional research
• Reliability and Measurement Validity are not connected to the design, as
such,

• Replicability will be high as long as the researcher specifies all the

procedures

• Internal Validity is weak, because co-relations are much more likely to be

found than causality

• External Validity will be strong if the sample is truly random

• Ecological Validity may be compromised by the instruments used.

Bryman: Social Research Methods, 4th edition

 Comparative design
Using the same methods to compare two or more
meaningfully contrasting cases
Can be qualitative or quantitative
Often cross-cultural comparisons
–Gallie’s (1978) study of the impact of automation on industrial
workers in England and France
Problem of translating research instruments and finding
comparable samples
• Includes multiple case studies

Bryman: Social Research Methods, 4th edition

 A comparative design

Bryman: Social Research Methods, 4th edition

 Evaluating comparative design

The characteristics are identical to those of cross-sectional

design, because the comparative design is essentially two
or more cross-sectional studies carried out at the same
point in time.

Comparing two or more cases can show circumstances in

which a particular theory will or will not hold.

Bryman: Social Research Methods, 4th edition

 Longitudinal design

 Survey of the same sample on more than one occasion

 Typically used to map change in social research
 In a panel study
 Or a cohort study

Bryman: Social Research Methods, 4th edition

 The longitudinal design

Bryman: Social Research Methods, 4th edition

 Evaluating longitudinal research

Overall, the characteristics are very similar to cross-sectional research designs.

Special problems:
Attrition, because people die, or move home, or withdraw
from the study.
Knowing when is the right time for the next wave of data
collection.
The first round may have been badly thought out, which
leaves the later rounds in a bit of a mess.
A panel conditioning effect may creep in to the research
Bryman: Social Research Methods, 4th edition
 Case study design
 detailed and intensive analysis of one case
 e.g. a single community, school, family, person, event, or organization
 often involves qualitative research
 case is the focus of location/setting just provides a background
 types of case: critical, unique, exemplifying, revelatory, longitudinal
 e.g. Holdaway (1982, 1983): ethnography of occupational culture in a
particular police force

Bryman: Social Research Methods, 4th edition

 Evaluating case-study research

The biggest issue concerns external validity, because it is

impossible to generalize the findings.

Many case-writers argue, though, that the point of the

research is to examine particulars rather than attempt to
generalize.

Cases may be extended longitudinally or through a

comparative design.
Bryman: Social Research Methods, 4th edition
 Bringing research strategy and research
design together

 Both quantitative and qualitative strategies can be executed

through any of the research designs covered in this chapter
– although experimentation is rarely used in qualitative
research.

 Survey research is the most typical form for quantitative

strategies
 Ethnographic studies are most typical of qualitative
strategies.
Bryman: Social Research Methods, 4th edition