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NURSING RESEARCH

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Sources of EVIDENCE FOR
NURSING PRACTICE
 Tradition
 Authority
 Experience
 Trial and error
 Intuition
 Logicalreasoning
 DISCIPLINED RESEARCH
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Reasons for research
 The spiralling costs of health care and the
cost-containment practices being instituted
in health care facilities
 Nurses increasingly are expected to adopt an
evidence-based practice (EBP)
Evidence-based nursing
practice
 Research based, decision-making process
utilized to guide the delivery of holistic
patient care by nurses
FROM THE pretest
71. One of the primary foundations for
evidence-based nursing practice is:

a. Medical knowledge
b. Research results
c. Everyday health care
d. Textbook information
Clinical Nursing research
 designedto generate knowledge to guide
nursing practice and to improve the health
and quality of life of nurses’ clients.
FROM THE pretest
72. The Nursing Studies Index, the first
annotated index of nursing research , was the
work of:

a. Florence Nightingale
b. Virginia Henderson
c. Marita Titler
d. Margaret Shetland
Future Directions for Nursing
Research
 Increased focus on outcomes research.
 Increased focus on biophysiologic
research.
 Promotion of evidence-based practice.
 Development of a stronger knowledge
base through multiple, confirmatory
strategies.
 Strengthening of multidisciplinary
collaboration
 Expanded dissemination of research
findings.
FROM THE pretest
73. Sources for nursing research come
primarily from two sources:

a. business and occupational settings

b. academic and health care settings
c. both urban and rural settings
d. pharmaceutical and business settings
PURPOSEs OF A SCIENTIFIC
NURSING RESEARCH
I – identification purpose
D – descriptive purpose
E – exploratory purpose
E – experimental purpose
D – developmental purpose
Identification
 To
study phenomena about which little is
known.

Qualitative example of identification:

 Weiss and Hutchinson (2000) investigated
people with diabetes and hypertension to
discover the basic social problem that affects
their adherence to health care directives.
Through in-depth interviews with 21 clients,
the researchers identified that warnings of
vulnerability was the basic problem
undermining adherence.
Description
 In a descriptive study, researchers observe,
count, delineate, and classify.

Quantitative example of description:

 Bohachick, Taylor, Sereika, Reeder, and Anton
(2002) conducted a study to describe
quantitative changes in psychological well-
being and psychological resources 6 months
after a heart transplantation.

Qualitative example of description:

 Bournes and Mitchell (2002) undertook an in-
Exploration
 To investigate the full nature of the
phenomenon, the manner in which it is
manifested, and the other factors to which it
is related.

Quantitative example of exploration:

 Reynolds and Neidig (2002) studied the
incidence and severity of nausea
accompanying combinative antiretroviral
therapies among HIV-infected patients, and
explored patterns of nausea in relation to
patient characteristics.
Explanation
 The goals of explanatory research are to
understand the underpinnings of specific
natural phenomena, and to explain
systematic relationships among phenomena.

Quantitative example of explanation:

 Resnick, Orwig, Maganizer, and Wynne (2002)
tested a model to explain exercise behaviour
among older adults on the basis of social
support, age, and self-efficacy expectations.

Qualitative example of explanation:

Development
 Totest the efficacy of a nursing intervention
are ultimately concerned with controlling
patient outcomes or the costs of care.
FROM THE pretest
74. Applied research builds a body of
knowledge for nursing practice because it is
the basis of:

a. evidence-based practice
b. clinical pathways
c. nursing process
d. nursing diagnosis
Nurses do research because…
 RA 9173 Section 28 (e )states that:
It shall be the duty of the nurse to:
(e) Undertake nursing and health human
resource development training and research
which shall include, but not limited to the
development of advance nursing practice;
THE FACES AND PLACES OF
RESEARCH
THE FACES AND PLACES OF
RESEARCH
 When a study is undertaken by a research
team, the person directing the investigation
is referred to as the project director or
principal investigator (PI).
 Two or three researchers collaborating
equally are co-investigators.
 When specialized expertise is needed on a
short-term basis (e.g., for statistical
analysis), projects may involve one or more
consultants.
THE FACES AND PLACES OF
RESEARCH
 Generally speaking, the site is the overall
location for the research—it could be an
entire community
 (e.g., a Haitian neighbourhood in Miami) or
an institution within a community (e.g., a
hospital in Boston).
Classifications of Research
According to level of investigation
1. Exploratory
2. Descriptive
3. Experimental
Classifications of Research
According to approach
1. Experimental
2. Non-experimental
Classifications of Research
According to measurement & data analysis
1. Quantitative
2. Qualitative
Classifications of Research
According to time frame
 Longitudinal
 Cross sectional
Classifications of Research
According to motive or objective
(Basic vs Applied)
Classifications of Research
According to time line
(Retrospective vs Prospective)
 Retrospective
 includes the Ex Post Facto Study
 a study in which people are enrolled and then
have their history of risks, infections or disease
measured
 seeks for antecedent facts
 independent variable is not manipulated
 Example:
Incidence of Post Traumatic Stress
Disorders (PTSD) after the Holocaust
Classifications of Research
 Prospective
 population selected is healthy at the beginning of the
study
 may involve many variables or only two; it may seek to
establish an association or one that is causal
 seeks for resultant facts
 focus is on future time to look for a data existing subject
with future happening

 Examples:
 The Effects of Predictor Tests on 3rd Year
nursing students at UST on June 2011 Board
Exam
 Nursing Robotics: Trends and Practices on the
Classifications of Research
According to research environment
1. Field
2. Laboratory
Quantitative research
 theinvestigation of phenomena that lend
themselves to precise measurement and
quantification, often involving a rigorous and
controlled design.
Quantitative Research Methods
 Descriptive
 main goal is to observe and collect data
 no intervention: a phenomenon is described
but no attempt is made to analyze the effects
of variables on the phenomenon
Examples of Descriptive
Research
 Caregivers’ Knowledge, Attitude, and
Practices in the Care of the Elderly: Basis
for Teaching Plan for the Caregivers
 Leadership Characteristics of Clinical
Instructor of a Selected Nursing School
 Competencies of Nurses in Caring for
Neonates with Congenital Abnormalities
Quantitative Research Methods
 Correlational
 systematic investigation of relationships or
association between two or more variables
Examples of correlational
research
 The Connection between Aging and High
Levels of Cholesterol
 The Relationship of Tardiness and Multiple
Sexual Partners among DLSI College
Irregular Students
Quantitative Research Methods
 Comparative
 used to give contrast to variables that are
existing
 used to describe the differences in variables in
two or more groups in a natural setting
Examples of comparative
research
 The Difference of Infrared thermometer
with thermocouple for monitoring skin
temperature
 The Difference of Hydrogel Solutions and
Lactobacillus Acidophillus in Pressure
Ulcer Applications
Quantitative Research Methods
 Quasi-experimental
 involves the manipulation of an independent
variable, that is, an intervention but lacks
randomization to treatment groups
Examples of quasi
experimental research
 Theeffect of a nurse-delivered smoking
cessation intervention on smoking status and
smoking self-efficacy among patients
hospitalized with cardiac disease. No
randomization used
Quantitative Research Methods
 Experimental
 an objective, systematic, controlled investigation
for the purpose of predicting and controlling
phenomena
 has manipulation, control, and randomization.
Example of experimental
research
 The effect of an educational intervention
relating to urinary incontinence on the
subsequent help-seeking behavior of older
adults. One group received individualized
instruction and written information, and the
other received written information alone.
Steps in the Research Process
 Identificationof problem
 Review of related literature
 Construction of a framework
 Formulate the hypothesis
 Select the research design
 Select the sample
 Collect the data
 Analyze and interpret the data
 Write the research report
 Communicate the research report
Major Steps: Quantitative
Study
Phase I: The Conceptual Phase
Step 1: Formulating and delimiting the
problem
Step 2: Reviewing the related research
literature
Step 3: Undertaking clinical fieldwork
Step 4: Defining the framework and conceptual
definitions
Step 5: Formulating the hypothesis
Major Steps: Quantitative
Study
Phase II: The Design and Planning Phase
Step 6: Selecting a research design
Step 7: Developing protocols for intervention
Step 8: Identifying the population to be
studied
Step 9: Designing the sampling plan
Step 10: Specifying methods to measure
variables
Step 11: Developing methods to protect
human/animal rights
Step 12: Finalizing and reviewing the research
Major Steps: Quantitative
Study
Phase III: The Empirical Phase
Step 13: Collecting the data
Step 14: Preparing data for analysis
Major Steps: Quantitative
Study
Phase IV: The Analytic Phase
Step 15: Analyzing the data
Step 16: Interpreting the results
Major Steps: Quantitative
Study
Phase V: The Dissemination Phase
Step 17: Communicating the findings
Step 18: Utilizing research evidence in practice
Phase I:
The Conceptual Phase
Step 1: Formulating and
delimiting the problem
 Good research depends to a great degree on
good questions. Without a significant,
interesting problem, the most carefully and
skillfully designed research project is of little
value.
The Problem
a condition requiring a solution.
 an expression of a dilemma or a disturbing
situation that needs investigation.
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CharACTERISTICS of A good
problem
G – general applicability
R - researchable
F – feasible or measurable
 time
 money/ cost
 participants
 instruments
 experience
 proper ethics of good researcher

I – important
N – novelty
FROM THE pretest
79. To be considered researchable, a problem
a. Should include an ethical dimension
b. Must deal with patient outcomes rather than
social issues
c. Has to be clearly defined
d. Must be amenable to study by collecting and
analyzing data
Sources of a good problem
C – onflicting ideas and ideals and concepts
L – literatures
I – nstructional program
E – ssays, journals, books and mass media
N – ew technologies
T – heories and principles
P - roblem areas in nursing
R - eading program
O - rganizational structure
O - rganizational policies
F - ield of specialization
FROM THE pretest
80. Which of the following elements would be
inappropriate in a researchable problem?

a. An ethical issue
b. A population divided by race
c. More than one variable
d. Clear definitions for all components
FROM THE MATERIAL
81. What are the two essential parts of the
research problem statement?
a. The problem and the outcome
b. The variable and the population
c. The theory and the concepts
d. The intervention and the outcome
The title
 serves as a frame of reference for the whole
thesis.
 enables the researcher to claim the title as
his own.
 helps the other researchers refer to the
work.
WRITING The title
 Should be clear and specific.
 Should include variables, relationships,
target population, and setting.
 Should have a maximum of 20 substantive
words, with function words not included in
the counting.
The title

Example

The Effects of Home Visits of Public

Health
Nurses on the Dietary Compliance of Adult
Diabetic Patients in Two Barangays in
Quezon City
Step 2: Reviewing the related
research literature
 Quantitative research is typically conducted
within the context of previous knowledge. A
thorough literature review provides a
foundation on which to base new knowledge
and usually is conducted well before any
data are collected in quantitative studies.
PURPOSES OF A LITERATURE
REVIEW
 Helps to lay the foundation for a study
 Can also inspire new research ideas
FROM THE pretest
86. The purpose of the literature review is to
a. identify a topic that has not been resolved
b. clarify the importance of a research
problem
c. identify gaps in the literature
d. all of the above
SCOPE OF A LITERATURE
SEARCH
 Primarysource
 Secondary source

Examples of primary and secondary sources:

 Secondary source, a review of the literature
on patient experiences in the ICU: Stein-
Parbury, J. & McKinley, S. (2000). Patients’
experiences of being in an intensive care
unit: A select literature review. American
Journal of Critical Care, 9, 20–27.
 Primary source, an original qualitative study
on patient experiences in the ICU: Hupcey, J.
LOCATING RELEVANT
LITERATURE FOR A RESEARCH
REVIEW
 Electronic Literature Searches
 CINAHL (Cumulative Index to Nursing and Allied
Health Literature)
 MEDLINE® (Medical Literature On-Line)
 Print Resources
 journals and periodicals, books, dissertations,
publications of professional organizations, and
government documents.
FROM THE pretest
87. The database that is considered the
premier bibliographic database for providing
access in the North Americas for biomedical
literature is:
a. Google
b. MEDLINE
c. CINAHL
d. Yahoo!
FROM THE pretest
88. A database differs from a search engine in
the following manner:
a. A database stores information
b. A search engine takes you to the information
c. Databases are specialized by area of
knowledge
d. All of the above
Summary & SYNTHESIS
A summary is a recap of the important
information found in the literature.

A synthesis is a re-organization, or a
reshuffling of information to:
1. Give a new interpretation of old materials
2. Combine new with old interpretations
3. Trace the intellectual progression of the
field including major debates.
Step 3: Undertaking Clinical
Fieldwork
 Aswith literature reviews, clinical fieldwork
may serve as a stimulus for developing
research questions and may be the first step
in the process for some researchers.
Step 4: Defining the
Framework and Developing
Conceptual Definitions
 When quantitative research is performed
within the context of a theoretical
framework—that is, when previous theory is
used as a basis for generating predictions
that can be tested through empirical
research—the findings may have broader
significance and utility.
Framework
 It is the abstract, logical structure of
meaning that guides the development of the
study and enables the researcher to link the
findings to nursing's body of knowledge.
 It is the conceptual underpinnings of a study.
Types of frameworks
 Theoretical framework is based on theories.
 Conceptual framework is rooted on specific
concepts or conceptual model.
The use of a framework
 In quantitative research, the framework is a
testable theory that may emerge from a
conceptual model or may be developed
inductively from published research or
clinical observations
 In qualitative research, the initial framework
is a philosophy or a worldview. A theory
consistent with the philosophy is developed
as the outcome of the study.
CONCEPTS
 Concept
 a term that abstractly describes and names an
object, a phenomenon, or an idea, thus providing
it with a separate identity or meaning.
 Example: Weight
 Constructs
 concepts at very high level of abstraction and
have general meaning
 Example: Self-Care
Definition of terms
 Operational definition – description of how
variables or concepts will be measured or
manipulated in the study

 Conceptualdefinition – provides a variable

with connotative meaning. It tells what the
concept means.
The Variable
Variable – an attribute of a person or object
that varies, that is, takes on different values.
It is anything that is liable to change or likely
to vary.

 Independent variable – cause

 Dependent variable – effect
 Extraneous variables – not studied but
affects results
eXAMPLE
Graduates of the baccalaureate degree
program are more proficient at the bedside
than the graduates of the diploma program.

TP: graduates of nursing program

IV: type of educational program
DV: degree of proficiency at the bedside
FROM THE pretest
82. Your problem statement is, “In the hospital
setting, the presence of social support from
family affects the pain perception of patients
with spinal cord injury.” Which of the following
is / are the dependent variable (s)?
a. Type of spinal cord injury
b. Social support from the family and pain
perception
c. Social support from the family
d. Pain perception
FROM THE pretest
83. Your hypothesis is, “Nursing home residents
ages 65-90 years who have Alzheimer’s disease
die at an earlier age than those who do not.”
Which answer best represents the independent
variable?
a. Age at death
b. Having Alzheimer’s disease
c. Dying at an early age
d. Living in a nursing home
extraneous Variables
 Mediating – comes between the dependent
and independent variables. Ex. - stress,
anxiety, motivation
 Organismic – those that can not be changed
through manipulation. Ex. – age, sex, race
Step 5: Formulating
Hypotheses
 Theresearch question identifies the concepts
under investigation and asks how the
concepts might be related; a hypothesis is
the predicted answer.
Hypothesis
A tentative, declarative statement about the
relationship between two or more variables.
 It is a tentative explanation for certain
behaviors, phenomena or events which have
occurred or will occur.
 It is an educated guess which needs to be
tested.
FROM THE pretest
84. Which statement best represents the
difference between a research question and a
hypothesis?
a. One is a declarative sentence; the other is a
question.
b. One questions a relationship; the other
predicts a relationship.
c. One assumes a relationship; the other
denies that one exists.
d. One is researchable; the other is statistical.
Characteristics
 It should be reasonable.
 It should state in definite terms, the
relationship between variables.
 It should be testable.
Types
 Null hypothesis (Ho) is a statement of a no
relationship, no difference, no effect or no
interaction. It is tested with statistics.
 Example
 There is no relationship between nursing
admission test results and board examination
ratings among the graduates of nursing
schools in Manila.
Types
 Alternative or research hypothesis (H1) is
the expectation based on theory. This could
either be:
 Directional – specifies the direction of the
relationship.
 Non-directional – only specifies that there is
a relationship.
Types
Examples

Directional
The higher the nursing admission test results,
the higher is the board examination ratings.

Non-directional
There is a relationship between nursing
admission test results and board examination
ratings among the graduates of nursing schools
in Manila.
Types
 Simplehypothesis has one independent and
one dependent variable.

Example
There is no relationship between nursing
admission test results and board examination
ratings among the graduates of nursing
schools in Manila.
Types
 Complexhypothesis has two or more
independent and dependent variables

Example
There is no relationship between nursing
admission test results and grade point
average to board examination ratings and
CGFNS results among the graduates of
nursing schools in Manila.
Wording the hypothesis
 Hypothesis should specify the independent
and dependent variables and the relationship
between them.
 Hypothesis should be worded in the present
tense
 Hypothesis should be stated declaratively.
FROM THE pretest
85. Which of the following pairs of hypotheses
are similar to each other?
a. Simple and complex
b. Associative and causal
c. Directional and causal
d. Null and causal
PRACTICE TEST
Phase 2:
The Design and Planning Phase
Step 6: Selecting a Research
Design
 The research design is the overall plan for
obtaining answers to the questions being
studied and for handling some of the
difficulties encountered during the research
process.
Things to consider
 Intervention
 Comparisons
 Controls for Extraneous Variables
 Timing of Data Collection
 Research Sites and Settings
Research Designs
 the plan, structure, and strategy of an
investigation.
 the totality of how the study is carried out
 includes the design, sample, setting,
instruments, interventions, procedures, and data
analysis.
Quantitative Descriptive

 Used to identify a phenomenon of interest,

identify variables within the phenomenon,
event or group in real life situations for the
purpose of discovering new meaning,
describing what exists,
 Determining the frequency with which
something occurs, and categorizing
information.
Quantitative Descriptive

 Correlational designs
 help one determine the extent to which different
variables are related to each other in the
population of interest
 there is effort to estimate a relationship as
distinguished from simple description.
Quantitative Descriptive
 Comparative designs
 examine and describe differences in variables in
two or more groups that occur naturally in the
setting.
Quantitative Descriptive
 Time dimensional designs
 designs examine sequences and patterns of
change, growth or change over time
 time becomes an important factor.
Quantitative Descriptive
 Longitudinal
designs examine changes in the
same subjects over an extended period.

 Ex: Trends in alcohol consumption in the United

States over a 10-year period, using data from the
1984, 1990, and 1995 National Alcohol Surveys
Quantitative Descriptive
 Crosssectional designs are used to examine
groups of subjects in various stages of
development simultaneously with the intent
to describe changes in the phenomenon
across stages.

Ex: Psychological symptoms in menopausal women are

correlated contemporaneously with physiologic
symptoms
True experiment
A true experimental design is characterized by
the following properties:
 Manipulation
 Control
 Randomization
CHARACTERISTICS OF A True
Experiment
 Manipulation: the researcher manipulates
i.e. provides intervention or treatment in the
experimental group. The independent
variable is manipulated to assess its effect on
the dependent variable.
Characteristics of a True
Experiment
 Control: imposing of rules by the researcher
to decrease the possibility of error and
increase the probability that the study’s
findings are an accurate reflection of reality.
Characteristics of a True
Experiment
Randomization: each individual in the
population should have a greater than zero
opportunity to be selected for the sample.

Random assignment is the assignment of

subjects to treatment conditions in a manner
determined by chance.
FROM THE pretest
94. Which of the following characteristics is
not part of a quantitative research design?

a. Randomization
b. Manipulation
c. Saturation
d. Control
Quantitative Experimental
 Pre-experimental design
 research design that does not include
mechanisms to compensate for the absence of
either randomization or a control group. Done as
a preliminary study.
Designs: Pre-experimental
 One shot case study
 Notation
X O
Where:
X – Treatment/intervention
O - Posttest
Designs: Pre-experimental
 Posttest only design with comparison group
 Notation
Experimental group X O1
Control group O2
Designs: Pre-experimental
 One-Group Pretest Posttest Design
 Notation:
O1 X O2

Where:
O1 – Pretest
X - Treatment/Intervention
O2 - Posttest
Quantitative Experimental
 Trueexperimental designs possess the
characteristics of a true experiment.
True Experimental Designs
Pretest Posttest Control Group Design or
Classical Experimental Design
Notation:
RS O1 X O2
____________________

RC O3 O4
Where:
R – Random assignment
O1 – Experimental pretest
O2 - Experimental posttest
EXAMPLE
 Sandgren, McCaul, King, O’Donnell, and
Foreman (2000) conducted an experiment to
test the effectiveness of a cognitive-
behavioral telephone therapy intervention
for patients with breast cancer. Women in
the study were randomly assigned to the
intervention or to a control group. Measures
of the dependent variables (e.g.,
psychological distress, coping, and quality of
life) were measured at baseline and at
follow-up, and changes over time were
determined.
True Experimental Designs
Solomon Four Group Design
Notation:
RS O1 X O2
RC O3 O4
RS X O5
RC O6
 involves two experimental groups and two
control groups. One experimental group and
one control group are administered the
pretest and the other groups are not,
thereby allowing the effects of the pretest
measure and intervention to be segregated.
 Example of a Solomon four-group design:
Swanson (1999) used a Solomon four-group
design in her study of the effects of a caring-
based counseling intervention on the
emotional wellbeing of women who had had
a miscarriage.
Swanson adopted this design because of a
concern that “the potential existed that
participating in a longitudinal control group
with early focused attention on loss might, in
itself, serve as a form of recognition,
support, and validation”
Quantitative Experimental
 Quasi-experimental designs are studies
involving an intervention in which subjects
are not randomly assigned to treatment
conditions but the researcher exercises
controls to enhance the study’s internal
validity.
Quasi-experimental Designs
Time series experiment
O1 O2 O3 O4 X O5 O6 O7 O8

 there is no comparison group; information

on the dependent variable is collected over a
period of time before and after the
treatment.
EXAMPLE
Nahm and Poston (2000) used a time series
design to assess the effect of an integrated
point-of case computer system on the quality
of nurses’ documentation.
Measurements of the quality of documentation
were made before the intervention was
implemented, and again at 6-, 12-, and 18-
months after implementation. The researchers
found that quality of nursing documentation
increased, and variability in charting
decreased.
Quasi-experimental Designs
Non-equivalent control group design
O1 X O2
---------------------
O3 O4
 The nonequivalent control group before—
after design involves the use of a
comparison group that was not created
through random assignment and the
collection of pretreatment data that permit
an assessment of initial group equivalence.
FROM THE pretest
95. Which of the following is not an
independent variable?

a. Outcome
b. Treatment
c. Intervention
d. Experiment
Between-Subjects and Within-
Subjects Designs
Example of a study with a between-subjects
design:
 Nantais-Smith and her colleagues (2001)
examined differences in plasma and nipple
aspirate carotenoid 12 months postpartum
between women who had and women who
had not breastfed their infants.

Example of a study with a within-subjects

design:
 Hill, Kurkowski, and Garcia (2000) examined
the effect of oral support (cheek and jaw
FROM THE pretest
96. Nonexperimental designs generate
_________ for __________ designs.

a. answers for quasi experimental designs

b. questions for experimental designs
c. solutions for quantitative designs
d. problems for experimental designs
Step 7: Developing Protocols
for the Intervention
 In experimental research, researchers
actively intervene and create the
independent variable, which means that
people in the sample will be exposed to
different treatments or conditions.
INTERVENTION PROTOCOL
 Who would administer
 Which group will receive the intervention
 How frequently and over how long a period
the treatment would last
 What specific equipment would be used
 What the alternative condition would be
Step 8: Identifying the
Population to be Studied
 Beforeselecting subjects, quantitative
researchers need to know what
characteristics participants should possess.
Researchers and others using the findings
also need to know to whom study results can
be generalized.
POPULATION
 refersto the aggregate or totality of those
conforming to a set of specifications set for
the research study
Scope and Limitations
 Scope defines where and when the study was
conducted and who the participants
(subjects) were. The scope sets the
boundaries of the study.

 Limitations– are the weaknesses and

shortcomings of the study as acknowledged
by the researcher.
Step 9: Designing the Sampling
Plan
 Research studies almost always rely on a
sample of subjects, who are a subset of the
population. It is clearly more practical and
less costly to collect data from a sample than
from an entire population.
Definitions
 Sampling involves selecting a group of
people, events, behaviors, or other elements
with which to conduct a study.
 Sampling plan defines the process of making
the selection.
 Sample defines the selected group of people
or elements.
 Population or target population is the entire
set of individuals or elements who meet the
sampling criteria.
Definitions
 Sampling criteria list the characteristics
essential for membership in the target
population.
 Accessible population is the portion of the
target population to which the researcher
has reasonable access.
 Elements are the entities that make up the
sample or the population
Definitions
 Sampling frame is a list of all cases, objects,
or groups of cases in the populations.
 Generalizing means that the findings can be
applied to the population.
 Representativeness means that the sample
must be like the population in as many ways
as possible.
Categories of Sampling Plans
 Probabilitysampling: a process in which
each element of the population has an equal
chance of being chosen for the sample.
There is randomization.

 Non-probabilitysampling: elements are

selected by non-random methods
Sample Size

RULE: The larger the sample, the more

representative of the population.
Minimum acceptable sample size
1. Descriptive: 10 – 20% of the population
2. Correlational: 30 subjects
3. Ex post facto: 15 subjects
4. Experimental: 15 – 30 subjects per group
Gay and Diehl,1992
Probability Techniques
 Simple random: sampling by chance either
by lottery or by the use of table of random
numbers
 Stratified random: involves taking certain
areas of the population, dividing the areas
into sections, and then taking a random
sample from each section.
Probability Techniques
 Systematic sampling: every nth name from a
roster of names can be taken as
sample.
K = N/n
Where: K = sampling interval
N = population
n = sample size
Probability Techniques
 Cluster sampling: sampling in groups
 Multi-stage sampling: used for extremely
large populations. It proceeds through a set
of stages from larger to smaller sampling
units.
Non-probability Techniques
 Purposive or judgmental: subjects are hand
picked to be included in the sample, based
upon the researcher’s knowledge of the
population.
 Quota sampling: researchers identify strata
of the population and then determine how
many participants are needed from each
stratum to meet a quota.
FROM THE pretest

89. Another term for cluster

sampling is

a. Systematic sampling
b. Quota sampling
c. Multistage sampling
d. Network sampling
FROM THE pretest
90. You are to select a set of 5 subjects using
systematic random sampling and a random
numbers table. The selected population is 50.
Your pencil was initially placed on the 5th
column from the left and 3rd row down. The
decision is to move across the columns to the
right.

13 25 31 40 23 29 10 17 12 32
49 42 21 48 38 14 35 34 07 02
45 15 26 11 06 24 04 44 40 50
08 22 20 35 01 43 09 33 28 16
Non-probability Techniques
 Accidental, convenience, incidental:
utilizes readily available subjects
 Snowball or network: subjects act as
informants who identify others for inclusion
in the sample who in turn leads to more
samples
FROM THE pretest
91. A researcher has decided to do a
satisfaction survey of all of the patients who
present in the emergency department over a
two month period of time. This is an example
of:
a. Stratified random sampling
b. Cluster sampling
c. Convenience sampling
d. Purposive sampling
FROM THE pretest
92. A total of 20 nursing students are randomly
selected from a random sample of five nursing
programs in one state. This is an example of:
a. Simple random sampling
b. Cluster sampling
c. Convenience sampling
d. Purposive sampling
Steps in Sampling
 General outline of procedures
1. Identify the target population
2. Identify the accessible population
3. Decide the sample size and how the
sample will be taken.
4. Recruit subjects according to the
designated plan.
5. Obtain the subject’s cooperation.
Threats to Experimental
Validity
 Selection threat is more likely to occur in
studies in which randomization is not
possible
 Maturation is defined as growing older, wiser,
stronger, hungrier, more tired, or more
experienced during the study. Unplanned and
unrecognized changes can influence the
findings of the study.
Threats to Experimental
Validity
 Mortalityis due to subjects who drop out of
a study before completion
Step 10: Specifying Methods to
Measure the Research
Variables
 Quantitative researchers must develop
methods to observe or measure the research
variables as accurately as possible.
Trustworthiness of data
 RELIABILITY
 consistency or repeatability of the test results
 instrument/tool consistently measures the
same thing
 VALIDITY
 the degree to which the results are truthful
 instrument/tool measures what it is supposed
to measure

 NOTE: A test can be reliable but not valid. A

valid test has always some degree of
reliability
reliability
 degree to which the observed score reflects
the true score of that measure
 range of reliability is between 0 and 1.0
 reliability coefficients at 0.8 is considered
high
Forms of reliability
 Interclass reliability
 between two variables/trials
 Intraclass reliability
 between two or more variables
TyPES OF INTERCLASS
RELIABILITY
 Consistency
 degree to which you can expect to get the same
results when measuring a variable more than
once on a single day
 Stability
 degree to which you can expect to get the same
results when measuring a variable for two
separate periods of time
 Equivalency
 allows a person to report whether or not another
type of test is equivalent to another
 Internal Consistency
 comparing two halves of a written test
TyPES OF INTraCLASS
RELIABILITY
 Objectivity
 Reliability of scores assigned by judges or
reviewers
 Accuracy
 Computed via the use of the standard error of
measurement
 To provide an accurate measure, test scores need
a relatively low standard deviation and a high
reliability coefficient
Validity
 Can be logical or statistic in nature
 Delineated into three types:
 Content-related validity
 Tool logically measures the content being reported
 Criterion-related validity
 Based on the comparison between the tests being used
and some known criterion
 Construct-related validity
 Attempts to develop validity measures that exist in
theory but are unobservable
FROM THE pretest
93. In interpreting quantitative research
results, the representativeness of the sample is
most closely tied to:

a. internal validity
b. external validity
c. sample validity
d. research validity
Step 11: Developing Methods
for Safeguarding
Human/Animal Rights
 Most nursing research involves human
subjects, although some studies involve
animals. In either case, procedures need to
be developed to ensure that the study
adheres to ethical principles.
Ethics in Research
ETHICS OF A PROPER RESEARCHER:
(SCIENTIC)
S – scientific objective always (good faith)
C – consent
I – integrity
E – equitable (appropriate acknowledgments)
liable for
N – noble – Respect basic rights of research
sample
T – truthfulness
I – importance of topic to nursing profession
FROM THE pretest
75. When developing a nursing research
project, why is it important to remember
ethical constraints?
a. It won’t be accepted by the Institutional
Review Board without these.
b. The protection of human subjects underlies
all human research projects.
c. The results will not be trustworthy and
replicable
d. The nurse researcher will not be able to get
funding for the project and therefore will not
be able to complete the project.
FROM THE pretest
76. Protection of the vulnerable in human
research studies is a critical ethical component
in research studies. What did Edward Jenner
fail to do when he tested swinepox on his 1-
year-old?
a. He thought the new knowledge overrode any
concern he should have for the rights of his
son.
b. He did not know any better.
c. He ignored that he could not get informed
consent from his son, who was particularly
vulnerable.
FROM THE pretest
77. Informed consent is a crucial issue in
research projects because:
a. research results will be more meaningful
b. the researcher will be adhering to
international codes of ethics from which
federal regulations are drawn
c. the project will be rejected by the IRB,
because the subject is not informed about the
study
d. the consenting subject will understand what
the research is about, and will have the choice
to participate or not.
FROM THE pretest
78. Scientific misconduct on the part of the
researcher is very serious. What constitutes
scientific misconduct?
a. Lying about the project to subjects when
seeking informed consent.
b. Fabrication, falsification of data, and
plagiarism
c. Attributing only partial authorship to other
contributors when they have done most of the
work
d. Making false claims about a project being
funded when the researcher is talking about
Step 12: Finalizing and
Reviewing the Research Plan
 Before actually collecting research data,
researchers often perform a number of
“tests” to ensure that plans will work
smoothly.
Phase 3:
The Empirical Phase
Step 13: Collecting the Data
 The actual collection of data in a
quantitative study often proceeds according
to a preestablished plan.
 The researcher’s plan typically specifies
procedures for the actual collection of data.
Data Collection
 Goal and Purpose
 Goal – to collect data that are meaningful for
the purpose of the study
 Meaningful data depend on the quality of
the instrument employed in the process
 No amount of sophisticated statistics can
salvage a poor set of data gathered through
defective instruments.
Questionnaire
 Questionnaire:
a paper and pencil
instrument completed by the study subjects
Questionnaire Formats
 Checklist
 Multiple Choice
 Rating Scale and Ranking Type
Likert scale
The format of a typical five-level Likert item
is:
 Strongly disagree
 Disagree
 Neither agree nor disagree
 Agree
 Strongly agree
Interview
 Interview
involves verbal communication
between the researcher and the subject

 Interview structure is the amount of

direction and restriction imposed by the
interview situation
Interview Types
 Structured:the interviewer has a list of
prepared questions in the form of an
interview schedule

 Unstructured interview: more like a

conversation. The interviewer uses an
interview guide
Interview Tools
Observation
 involves looking at the phenomenon
 Used to study human behavior
 Hawthorne effect: is the effect on the
dependent variable caused by the subject’s
awareness that they are participants in a
study
Types of Observation
 Structured observation is one in which
aspects of the phenomenon to be observed
are decided in advance
 Unstructured observation is a nonselective
description of the phenomenon to be
observed
Types of Observation
 Participant observation is done when the
researcher is involved in the setting with the
subject
 Non-participant observation is when the
researcher is merely viewing the situation
Records
 Records are prepared and preexisting data
 Selective deposit and selective survival are
the two major sources of bias.
 Records available for use may not constitute
the entire set of all possible data.
Physiologic Measurement
 Physiologic measurements are techniques
used to measure physiologic variables either
directly or indirectly. This is also called
biophysiologic measures
 Used in clinical nursing studies
 The choice of the physiologic measure is
dependent upon its ability to yield good
information.
Criteria for effective
questionning
 Clarity of language
 Specificity of content and time period
 Singleness of purpose
 Freedom from assumption
 Freedom from suggestion
 Linguistic completeness
 Grammatical consistency
Types of questions
Closed ended: respondents answer a number
of alternative responses
1. Dichotomous: two response alternative
2. Multichotomous: multiple responses
Open ended: respondents are given enough
flexibility to answer questions or specify
answers other than those found in the
questionnaire
Step 14: Preparing the Data
for Analysis
 After data are collected, a few preliminary
activities must be performed before data
analysis begins. Coding of the data is
typically needed at this point.
Phase 4:
The Analytic Phase
Step 15: Analyzing the Data
 Data need to be processed and analyzed in
an orderly, coherent fashion. Quantitative
information is usually analyzed through
statistical procedures.
Data analysis
 Dataanalysis is the systematic organization
and synthesis of research data and, in most
quantitative studies, the testing of the
hypotheses using those data.
Quantitative Analysis
 The manipulation of numerical data through
statistical procedures for the purpose of
describing phenomenon or assessing the
magnitude and reliability of relationships
among them.
Quantitative Analysis
Factors to consider in choosing the appropriate
statistical test
1. Purpose of the study
2. Research questions
3. Number and measure of variables
4. Sampling technique and sample size
5.Availability of statistical
software
6. Ability of the researcher
Quantitative Analysis
Branches of statistics
1. Descriptive statistics used to describe and
synthesize data obtained from empirical
observations and measurements.
2. Inferential statistics: it is concerned with
making decisions about a large body of data in
the population of interest by using a sample of
that universe.
Quantitative Analysis
A set of data can be summarized in terms of 3
characteristics

1. Shape of distribution
2. Central tendency
3. Variability
QUAN - Shape of distribution
 Frequency distribution is a systematic
arrangement of numerical values from the
lowest to the highest, together with a count
of the number of times each value was
obtained.
 A frequency distribution can be obtained
graphically by means of a frequency polygon
QUAN - Shape of distribution
Scores in a pilot survey on patient satisfaction
1 4 3 4
3 3 2 2
5 1 3 2
2 3 4 3
1 = Very dissatisfied 4 = Satisfied
2 = Dissatisfied 5 = Very Satisfied
3 = A little satisfied
QUAN - Shape of distribution
Frequency distribution
Frequency Table
_________________________________
Score Frequency (f) Percentage
1 2 12.50%
2 4 25.00%
3 6 37.50%
4 3 18.75%
5 1 6.25%
n = 16 100%
QUAN - Shape of distribution
 Frequency polygon
QUAN – Central Tendency
 Mode – that numerical value in a distribution
that occurs most frequently
 Median – that point in a distribution above
which and below which 50% of the subjects
fall
 Mean – the point on the score scale that is
equal to the sum of scores divided by the
number of scores. It is also known as
average.
QUAN – Variability
 Standard deviation (SD) captures the degree
to which the scores deviate from one
another. The SD tells us how much on the
average the scores deviate from the mean. It
also tells us the homogenecity or
heterogenecity of the group.
 Range is the highest score minus the lowest
score.
QUAN – Measurement levels
 Nominal – lowest level; name categories;
assignment of numbers to simply classify
characteristics into categories(gender)
 Ordinal – attributes are ordered or ranked
according to some criterion (Likert scale)
 Interval - The distance between any 2
numbers on the scale (Celcius)
 Ratio – Highest scale are of known and equal
size
Parametric and Non-parametric
measurements
Parametric tests,
 characterized by three attributes: (1) they
involve the estimation of a parameter; (2)
they require measurements on at least an
interval scale; and (3) they involve several
assumptions
Nonparametric
 are usually applied when data have been
measured on a nominal or ordinal scale.
Parametric and Non-
parametric measurements
 ANOVA (Analysis of Variance)
 A parametric procedure for testing mean
differences among three or more variables
groups by comparing variability between
groups to variability within groups.
Parametric and Non-parametric
measurements
 Chi-square
 A nonparametric test of statistical significance
used to assess whether a relationship exists
between two variables both nominal level.
Parametric and Non-
parametric measurements
 Pearson r
 a nonparametric measure of the strength of
linear dependence between two variables.
 used correlational designs
Parametric and Non-
parametric measurements
 t-test
 TWO independent variables
 is any statistical hypothesis test in which the
test statistic has a Student's t distribution if
the null hypothesis is true.
 population is assumed to be normally
distributed
 sample sizes are small
Statistical choice for measurement
scales of variables
Independent Variable Dependent Variable Statistical Test

1 nominal 1 nominal Chi-square

1 nominal (2 groups) 1 continuous T-test

1 nominal (>2 groups) 1 continuous One-way ANOVA

2 nominal 1 continuous Two-way ANOVA

Step 16: Interpreting the
Results
 Beforethe results of a study can be
communicated effectively, they must be
systematically interpreted. Interpretation is
the process of making sense of the results
and of examining their implications.
Phase 5:
The Dissemination Phase
Step 17: Communicating the
Findings
 A study cannot contribute evidence to
nursing practice if the results are not
communicated. The most compelling
hypothesis, the most rigorous study, the most
dramatic results are of no value to the
nursing community if they are unknown.
Communicating Research
 Communicating research findings, the final
step in the research process, involves
developing a research report and
disseminating it through presentations and
publications to audiences of nurses, health
care professionals, policy makers, and health
consumers.
Advantages
 Researchers are able to advance the
knowledge of a discipline.
 Researchers receive personal recognition and
professional advancement
 It promotes critique and replication
 It helps identify additional problems
 Promotes the use of research findings in
practice
Avenues for communicating
research
 Publication in journals including on-line
journals
 Oral presentation in conferences
 Poster presentation in conferences
 Publication in conference proceedings
 Publication in other sources e.g. books,
newspapers, magazines
Writing the Research Report
Purpose in writing the report
 To communicate in writing: the problem
investigated, the methods used, the findings
generated, the interpretation of results, the
integration with the theory, what conclusions
have been drawn at the end, and how the
findings relate to past research.
Writing the introduction and
problem
 Go directly into what the problem is
investigating.
 State the rationale.
 Include key previous researches to
strengthen the reason for the investigation.
 Include the significance, scope and
limitations, & definition of terms.
Writing the literature review
 Include conflicting viewpoints of various
authors.
 State how each literature relates to the topic
under investigation.
 Put together references saying the same
thing.
 Learn to choose ONLY relevant literature.
Writing the methodology
 Include the research design and the
justification of why it was chosen.
 Present the population and the sampling
design, setting, and sample size.
 Describe the tool used together with the
validity and reliability testing.
 Discuss how the data was analyzed.
Writing the results &
discussion
 Present results in a logical order with the
research question as guide.
 Use tables, figures, and other devises to
maximize the lucidity of the presentation.
 Text should be followed by tables.
 Consistency in style should be followed in
writing the discussion.
 RESULTS are data bound: DISCUSSION is data
based
Writing the summary
 The summary puts together the highlights of
the important findings of the investigation.
 Look back at the questions and tie them up
with the main findings.
 Do not write everything in the findings in the
summary.
Characteristics of scientific
writing
 Simplicity
 Conciseness
 Straightforwardness
 Consistency in the use of terms
 Continuity through transitional sentences
 Accuracy
 Parsimony
Step 18: Utilizing the Findings
in Practice
 Many interesting studies have been
conducted by nurses without having any
effect on nursing practice or nursing
education. Ideally, the concluding step of a
high-quality study is to plan for its utilization
in practice settings.
Activities: Qualitative Study
 Conceptualizing and planning a qualitative
study
 Identifying a research problem
 Doing a literature review
 Selecting and gaining entrée into research
sites
 Designing qualitative studies
 Addressing ethical issues
Activities: Qualitative Study
 Conducting a qualitative study
 Obtaining and analyzing qualitative data

 Disseminating qualitative findings

 Writing qualitative research
FROM THE pretest
97. Which of the following best illustrates the
“emic” perspective in research?
a. Finding a quality of a phenomenon and
looking for examples of the quality
b. Taking an outsider’s view of a phenomenon
c. Exploring the way members of a group view
themselves
d. Validating perspectives about a group
through interviews
Qualitative Designs
 Qualitative designs uses systematic,
interactive approach which is used to
describe life experiences and give them
meaning.
Qualitative Research
 Qualitative research is the investigation of
phenomena typically in an in-depth and
holistic fashion, through the collection of
rich narrative materials using a flexible
research design.
Qualitative Research Methods
 Phenomenological
 rooted in philosophy & psychology
 describes an experience as they are lived by
people
 concerned with the lived experiences of humans
 an approach to thinking about what life
experiences of people are like and what they
mean

Ex: Illuminating the lived experiences of

care providers who were highly skilled
communicators in their relationships with
Qualitative Research Methods
 Grounded theory
 rooted in sociology
 discovers what problems exist in a social scene
and the process persons use to handle them
 the discovery of a core variable that is central in
explaining what is going on in that social scene

 Ex:
Explaining the maternal process of
managing late stages of breastfeeding and
weaning the child from the breast.
Qualitative Research Methods
 Ethnographic
 rooted in anthropology
 focuses on the culture of a group of people, with
an effort to understand the world view of those
under study.

 Ex: The ethical issues of daily living affecting

illegal Filipino migrants in the US
Qualitative Research Methods
 Historical
 narrative description or analysis of events that
occurred in the remote or recent past.
 systematic collection and critical evaluation of
data relating to past occurrences

Ex: Culture of Excellence: The University of Santo

Tomas after 50 years of Commitment, Competence
& Excellence
Qualitative Research Methods
 Case study
 a thorough, in-depth analysis of an entity
 entity may be an individual, family, group,
institution, community, or other social unit
 researchers attempt to analyze and understand
issues that are important to the history,
development, or circumstances of the entity
under study

 Ex:a case study of an older rural African-

American woman’s support network and
preferences for care providers. Based on
their analysis, the researchers discussed
Qualitative Research Methods
 Critical theory
 originated from the Frankfurt School during the
1920s
 viewing the world that involves a critique of
society, with the goal of envisioning new
possibilities and effecting social change
 it calls for inquiries that foster enlightened self-
knowledge and sociopolitical action.

 Ex:Institutional discrimination in a hospital

regarding health care to people with
HIV/AIDS. The study sought to identify
structures in the hospital that contributed to
Qualitative Research Methods
 Feminist research
 similar to critical theory research, but the focus is
sharply on gender domination and discrimination
within patriarchal societies
 researchers seek to establish collaborative and non-
exploitative relationships with their informants, to
place themselves within the study to avoid
objectification, and to conduct research that is
transformative

 Ex:First Nations (Aboriginal) women’s

experiences with mainstream health care
services
FROM THE pretest
98. Combining qualitative and quantitative
methods in a single study is known as

a. Systematic analysis
b. Transferability
c. Prospective design
d. Triangulation
FROM THE pretest
99. A researcher examines the norms, rules,
and values of the staff of a large long term
care facility. What type of research does this
represent?
a. Grounded theory
b. Ethnography
c. Phenomenology
d. Case study
Qualitative sampling
Sample size is not predetermined in qualitative
research

 Saturation: is the point in data gathering

where no new data emerge therefore
sampling is stopped. There is data repetition.
Qualitative Analysis
 Qualitativeanalysis is the organization and
interpretation of non-numerical data for the
purpose of discovering important underlying
dimensions and patterns of relationships
Qualitative Analysis
Data analysis components
 Categories are underlying regularities,
concepts, and clusters of concepts.
 Themes develop within categories of data.
They emerge from the data. A theme is an
abstract entity that brings meaning and
identity to experiences and its variant
manifestations. It captures and unifies the
nature or basis of the experience into a
meaningful whole.
Qualitative Analysis Process
 Comprehending – making sense of the data
and learning “what is going on” and
preparing a thorough description of the
phenomenon.
Qualitative Analysis Process
 Synthesizing– involves sifting of the data
and putting pieces together. Researchers get
a sense of what is typical with regard to the
phenomenon and what variation is like.
Qualitative Analysis Process
 Theorizing – involves a systematic sorting of
the data. Researchers develop alternative
explanations of the phenomenon and then
hold these explanations up to determine
their fit with the data.
Qualitative Analysis Process
 Recontextualizing – involves the further
development of the theory such that its
applicability to other settings or groups is
explored.
FROM THE pretest
100. When writing up a research project, the
researcher describes in detail how biases,
assumptions, and personal perspectives were
identified and set aside, or bracketed. What
criterion for reliability and validity was
provided?
a. Credibility
b. Transferability
c. Dependability
d. Confirmability
Remember
The KEY in choosing the research design

 Thebest research design is the one that is

most appropriate for the problem and the
purpose of the study.
REMEMBER
Genius is the ability to reduce the
complicated to the simple.

C. W. Cheran
THANK YOU