EE-480

Wireless Communications

Week 4-5

Dr. Sajjad Shami

EED SST
UMT Lahore
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 House Rules
Please place your mobiles on silent

Please note that Lecturers cannot focus

and concentrate on the topic if there is
noise and disruption during the lecture

Anyone who disrupts the lecture will be marked

absent or asked to leave and will be awarded
minus five mark in the next quiz. INDISCIPLINE
OF ANY KIND WILL RECEIVE A MINUS FIVE MARK
PENALTY.
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 Given a channel with an intended capacity of
20 Mbps, the bandwidth of the channel is
3MHz.
 What signal-to-noise ratio is required to
achieve this capacity?

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C = B log2 (1 + SNR)
 20 x 106 = 3 x 106 x log2(1 +
SNR)
 log2(1 + SNR) = 6.67
 1 + SNR = 26.67 = 102
 SNR = 101

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 If an amplifier has a 30dB voltage gain, what
voltage ratio does the gain represent?
 SOL
 For a voltage ratio, we have
 NdB = 30 = 20 log(V2/V1)

 V2/V1 = 1030/20 = 101.5 = 31.6

Ans.

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 If an amplifier has an output of 20W, what is
its output in dB ?
 SOL:

 Power (dBW) = 10 log (Power/1W)

= 10 log20 = 13 dBW Ans.

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 Read all sections
 Work out by hand all solved examples
 Solve all in-chapter exercises
 Write answers to review questions
 Solve at least every fifth Problem [end of
chapter]

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 Traditional
◦ Traditional local area network (LAN)
◦ Traditional wide area network (WAN)
 Higher-speed
◦ High-speed local area network (LAN)
◦ Metropolitan area network (MAN)
◦ High-speed wide area network (WAN)

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 Covers large geographical areas
 Circuits provided by a common carrier
 Consists of interconnected switching nodes
 Traditional WANs provide modest capacity
◦ 64000 bps common
◦ Business subscribers using T-1 service – 1.544 Mbps
common
 Higher-speed WANs use optical fiber and
transmission technique known as asynchronous
transfer mode (ATM)
◦ 10s and 100s of Mbps common

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 Like WAN, a LAN interconnects a variety of devices
and provides a means for information exchange among
them
 Traditional LANs
◦ Provide data rates of 1 to 20 Mbps
 High-speed LANS
◦ Provide data rates of 100 Mbps to 1 Gbps

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 Scope of a LAN is smaller
◦ LAN interconnects devices within a single building or cluster
of buildings
 LAN is usually owned by organization that owns the
attached devices
◦ For WANs, most of network assets are not owned by same
organization
 Internal data rate of LAN is much greater ?

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 Traditional point-to-point and switched network
techniques used in WANs are inadequate for growing
needs of organizations
 Need for high capacity and low costs over large area
 MAN provides:
◦ Service to customers in metropolitan areas
◦ Required capacity
◦ Lower cost and greater efficiency than equivalent service
from telephone company

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 Switching Nodes:
◦ Intermediate switching device that moves data
◦ Not concerned with content of data
 Stations:
◦ End devices that wish to communicate
◦ Each station is connected to a switching node
 Communications Network:
◦ A collection of switching nodes

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 Some nodes connect only to other nodes (e.g., 5 and
7)
 Some nodes connect to one or more stations
 Node-station links are usually dedicated point-to-
point links
 Node-node links usually multiplexed links
◦ Frequency-division multiplexing (FDM)
◦ Time-division multiplexing (TDM)
 Not a direct link between every node pair

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 Circuit switching
◦ Dedicated communications path between two stations
◦ E.g., public telephone network
 Packet switching
◦ Message is broken into a series of packets
◦ Each node determines next leg of transmission for each packet

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 Circuit establishment
◦ An end to end circuit is established through switching nodes
 Information Transfer
◦ Information transmitted through the network
◦ Data may be analog voice, digitized voice, or binary data
 Circuit disconnect
◦ Circuit is terminated
◦ Each node deallocates dedicated resources

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 Can be inefficient
◦ Channel capacity dedicated for duration of connection
◦ Utilization not 100%
◦ Delay prior to signal transfer for establishment
 Once established, network is transparent to users
 Information transmitted at fixed data rate with only
propagation delay

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 Subscribers - devices that attach to the network;
mostly telephones
 Subscriber line - link between subscriber and
network
◦ Also called subscriber loop or local loop
 Exchanges - switching centers in the network
◦ A switching center that support subscribers is an end office
 Trunks - branches between exchanges

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 A data message of 10 ms duration having
4400 bits crosses 9 nodes (10 hops) to reach
its destination. Find the data rate and total
delay for circuit switched connection.
 [Assume node delays as 1.5ms].

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 Data rate = total bits / time internal
 = 4400 / (10 x 10-3)
 = 440 kbps … Ans 1.

 Total delay = 10 + (10 x 1.5) ms

 = 25 ms … Ans 2.

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 Data is transmitted in blocks, called packets
 Before sending, the message is broken into a series of
packets
◦ Typical packet length is 1000 octets (bytes)
◦ Packets consists of a portion of data plus a packet header that
includes control information
 At each node en route, packet is received, stored briefly
and passed to the next node

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 DATAGRAM
 VIRTUAL CIRCUIT

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 Each packet treated independently, without reference
to previous packets
 Each node chooses next node on packet’s path
 Packets don’t necessarily follow same route and may
arrive out of sequence
 Exit node restores packets to original order
 Responsibility of exit node or destination to detect
loss of packet and how to recover

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 Preplanned route established before packets sent
 All packets between source and destination follow
this route
 Routing decision not required by nodes for each
packet
 Emulates a circuit in a circuit switching network but
is not a dedicated path
◦ Packets still buffered at each node and queued for output
over a line

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 Advantages:
◦ Packets arrive in original order
◦ Packets arrive correctly
◦ Packets transmitted more rapidly without routing decisions
made at each node

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 If the message of Example 3.1 is to be sent in
a data packet of size 1020 bits having 16
overhead bits in each packet, then estimate
the end-to-end delay for packet switching
connection.
 Recall :
 Message size is 4400 bits
 Data rate is 440 kbps

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 Number of packets = 4400 / (1020 – 16)
 = 4.38 nears 5 packets

 Time for one packet = 1020 bits / 440 kbps

 = 2.32 ms

 Delay = ( 5 x 2.32 + 9 x 2.32 + 10 x 10) ms

 = 132.48 ms

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 A very small packet size (53 octets) can result
in an efficient network design…

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 ATM

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 Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM) is a
standard switching technique designed to
unify telecommunication and computer
networks.
 It uses asynchronous time-division
multiplexing,and it encodes data into small,
fixed-sized cells.
 This differs from approaches such as the
Internet Protocol or Ethernet that use variable
sized packets or frames.
 ATM provides data link layer services that run
over a wide range of OSI physical Layer links.

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 ATM has functional similarity with both circuit
switched networking and small packet
switched networking.
 It was designed for a network that must
handle both traditional high-throughput data
traffic (e.g., file transfers), and real-time,
low-latency content such as voice and video.
 ATM uses a connection-oriented model in
which a virtual circuit must be established
between two endpoints before the actual data
exchange begins.
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 ATM is a core protocol used over the
SONET/SDH backbone of the public switched
telephone network (PSTN) and Integrated
Services Digital Network (ISDN),
 but its use is declining in favour of All IP.

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 Also known as cell relay
 Operates at high data rates
 Resembles packet switching
◦ Involves transfer of data in discrete chunks, like packet
switching
◦ Allows multiple logical connections to be multiplexed over
a single physical interface
 Minimal error and flow control capabilities reduces
overhead processing and size
 Fixed-size cells simplify processing at ATM nodes

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 An ATM cell consists of a 5-byte header
 and
 a 48-byte payload.
 TOTAL = 53 octets

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 Virtual channel connection (VCC)
◦ Logical connection in ATM
◦ Basic unit of switching in ATM network
◦ Analogous to a virtual circuit in packet switching networks
◦ Exchanges variable-rate, full-duplex flow of fixed-size cells
 Virtual path connection (VPC)
◦ Bundle of VCCs that have the same end points

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 Real-time service
◦ Constant bit rate (CBR)

◦ Real-time variable bit rate (rt-VBR)

 Non-real-time service
◦ Non-real-time variable bit rate (nrt-VBR)

◦ Available bit rate (ABR)

◦ Unspecified bit rate (UBR)

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 Videoconferencing
 Interactive audio (e.g., telephony)
 Audio/video distribution (e.g., television, distance
learning, pay-per-view)
 Audio/video retrieval (e.g., video-on-demand, audio
library)

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 Text/data/image transfer, messaging, distribution,
retrieval
 Remote terminal (e.g., telecommuting)

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 Q. Differentiate between WANs and LANs?
 A. Wide area networks (WANs) are used to
connect stations over very large areas that
may even be worldwide while local area
networks (LANs) connect stations within a
single building or cluster of buildings.
 Ordinarily, the network assets supporting a
LAN belong to the organization using the
LAN. For WANs, network assets of service
providers are often used. LANs also
generally support higher data rates than
WANs.

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 Q. Why is it useful to have more than one
possible path through a network for each pair
of stations?
 A. It is advantageous to have more than one
possible path through a network for each pair
of stations to enhance reliability in case a
particular path fails.

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 Q. What is the principal application that has
driven the design of circuit-switching
networks?
 A. Telephone communications.

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 Q. Differentiate between static and alternate
routing in a circuit-switching network.
 A. Static routing involves the use of a
predefined route between any two end points,
with possible backup routes to handle
overflow.
 In alternate routing, multiple routes are
defined between two end points and the
choice can depend on time of day and traffic
conditions.

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 Q. What is a semi-permanent connection?
 A. This is a connection to another user set up
by prior arrangement, and not requiring a call
establishment protocol. It is equivalent to a
leased line.

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 Q. Explain the difference between datagram
and virtual circuit operation.
 A. In the datagram approach, each packet is
treated independently, with no reference to
packets that have gone before.
 In the virtual circuit approach, a preplanned
route is established before any packets are
sent. Once the route is established, all the
packets between a pair of communicating
parties follow this same route through the
network.

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 Q. What are some of the limitations of using a
circuit-switching network for data
transmission?
 A. It is not efficient to use a circuit switched
network for data since much of the time a
typical terminal-to-host data communication
line will be idle.
 Secondly, the connections provide for
transactions at a constant data rate, which
limits the utility of the network in
interconnecting a variety of host computers
and terminals.

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Ref: Stallings Chapter 4
 Syntax
◦ Concerns the format of the data blocks
 Semantics
◦ Includes control information for coordination and error
handling
 Timing
◦ Includes speed matching and sequencing

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 Applications
◦ Exchange data between computers (e.g., electronic mail)
 Computers
◦ Connected to networks
 Networks
◦ Transfers data from one computer to another

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 Physical layer
 Network access layer
 Internet layer
 Host-to-host, or transport layer
 Application layer

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 Covers the physical interface between a data
transmission device and a
transmission medium or network
 Physical layer specifies:
◦ Characteristics of the transmission medium
◦ The nature of the signals
◦ The data rate
◦ Other related matters

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 Concerned with the exchange of data between an end
system and the network to which it's attached
 Software used depends on type of network
◦ Circuit switching
◦ Packet switching (e.g., X.25)
◦ LANs (e.g., Ethernet)
◦ Others

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 Uses internet protocol (IP)
 Provides routing functions to allow data to traverse
multiple interconnected networks
 Implemented in end systems and routers

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 Commonly uses transmission control protocol (tcp)
 Provides reliability during data exchange
◦ Completeness
◦ Order

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 Logic supports user applications
 Uses separate modules that are peculiar to each
different type of application

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 Simple mail transfer protocol (SMTP)
◦ Provides a basic electronic mail facility
 File Transfer Protocol (FTP)
◦ Allows files to be sent from one system to another
 TELNET
◦ Provides a remote logon capability

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 Application
 Presentation
 Session
 Transport
 Network
 Data link
 Physical

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 Provides access to the OSI environment for users
 Provides distributed information services

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 Provides independence to the application processes
from differences in data representation (syntax)

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 Provides the control structure for communication
between applications
 Establishes, manages, and terminates connections
(sessions) between cooperating applications

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 Provides reliable, transparent transfer of data between
end points
 Provides end-to-end error recovery and flow control

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 Provides upper layers with independence from the data
transmission and switching technologies used to
connect systems
 Responsible for establishing, maintaining, and
terminating connections

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 Provides for the reliable transfer of information across
the physical link
 Sends blocks (frames) with the necessary
synchronization, error control, and flow control

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 Concerned with transmission of unstructured bit stream
over physical medium
 Deals with accessing the physical medium
◦ Mechanical characteristics
◦ Electrical characteristics
◦ Functional characteristics
◦ Procedural characteristics

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 TCP/IP protocols matured quicker than similar OSI
protocols
◦ When the need for interoperability across networks was
recognized, only TCP/IP was available and ready to go
 OSI model is unnecessarily complex
◦ Accomplishes in seven layers what TCP/IP does with fewer
layers

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