Defining

Defining Motivation
Motivation

Motivation
The processes that account for an individual’s
intensity, direction, and persistence of effort
toward attaining a goal.

Key
KeyElements
Elements
1.
1. Intensity:
Intensity:how
howhard
hardaaperson
persontries
tries
2.
2. Direction:
Direction:toward
towardbeneficial
beneficialgoal
goal
3.
3. Persistence:
Persistence:how
howlong
longaaperson
persontries
tries

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 Mot iva ti o n
to d o s o m e t h in g,
The willingness on ’s a b il ity
is a c t i
conditioned by th r the
so me n e e d f o
to satisfy
individual

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 Need
l or p s y c h o l o g ic al
A physiologica e r t ain
a t m a k e s c
deficiency th tive
s a p p e a r a tt ra c
outcome

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 Basic
Basic Motivation
Motivation Process
Process

Reduction
Reduction
Unsatisfied
Unsatisfied Search
Search Satisfied
Satisfied
Tension
Tension Drives
Drives of
of
need
need behavior
behavior need
need tension
tension

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 Hierarchy
Hierarchy of
of Needs
Needs Theory
Theory (Maslow)
(Maslow)

Hierarchy of Needs Theory

There is a hierarchy of five needs
—physiological, safety, social,
esteem, and self-actualization; as
each need is substantially
satisfied, the next need becomes
dominant.

Self-Actualization
The drive to become what one is capable of becoming.

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 Maslow’s
Maslow’s Hierarchy
Hierarchy of
of Needs
Needs

Lower-Order Needs Higher-Order Needs

Needs that are satisfied Needs that are satisfied
externally; physiological internally; social, esteem,
and safety needs. and self-actualization
needs.

Source: Motivation and Personality , 2nd ed,, by A.H. Maslow, 1970. E X H I B I T 6–1
Reprinted by permission of Prentice Hall, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ.
E X H I B I T 6–1

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 Hierarchy
Hierarchy of
of Needs
Needs Theory
Theory
1. Physiological needs: Hunger, thirst, shelter, sex, and other bodily
needs
2. Safety needs: Security and protection from physical and emotional
harm
3. Social needs: Affection, a sense of belonging, acceptance, and
friendship
4. Esteem needs: Internal factors--self-respect, autonomy, and
achievement; external factors--status, recognition, and attention
5. Self-actualization needs: Drive to become what one is capable of
becoming--growth, achieving
one’s potential, and self-fulfillment

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 Theory
Theory XX and
and Theory
Theory YY (Douglas
(Douglas McGregor)
McGregor)

Theory X
Assumes that employees dislike
work, lack ambition, avoid
responsibility, and must be
directed and coerced to perform.

Theory Y
Assumes that employees like
work, seek responsibility, are
capable of making decisions,
and exercise self-direction and
self-control when committed to
a goal.

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 McGregor’s
McGregor’s Theory
Theory XX and
and Theory
Theory YY

 Two distinct views of people:

– Negative (Theory X)
– Positive (Theory Y)
 Managers view employees based on a group of
assumptions
 Based on these assumptions, managers tend to
mold their behavior toward employees

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 Management
Management Assumptions
Assumptions

Theory X Workers Theory Y Workers

• Dislike work • View work as natural
• Must be threatened • Self-directed
with punishment
• Exercise self-control
• Avoid responsibilities
• Accept responsibility
• Seek formal direction
• Seek responsibility
• Require security
• Make innovative
• Little ambition decisions

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 Two-Factor
Two-Factor Theory
Theory (Frederick
(Frederick Herzberg)
Herzberg)

Two-Factor (Motivation-Hygiene) Theory

Intrinsic factors are related to job satisfaction,
while extrinsic factors are associated with
dissatisfaction.

Hygiene Factors
Factors—such as company policy
and administration, supervision,
and salary—that, when adequate
in a job, placate workers. When
factors are adequate, people will
not be dissatisfied.
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 Herzberg’s
Herzberg’s Two-Factor
Two-Factor Theory
Theory

Hygiene factors affect Motivator factors affect

job dissatisfaction job satisfaction
• Quality of supervision • Promotional opportunities
• Pay • Opportunities for personal
• Company policies growth
• Physical working • Recognition
conditions • Responsibility
• Relations with others • Achievement
• Job security

High Job Dissatisfaction 0 Job Satisfaction High

Source: F. Herzberg, Harvard Business Review (February 1968).

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 ERG
ERG Theory
Theory (Clayton
(Clayton Alderfer)
Alderfer)
ERG Theory
There are three groups of core needs: existence,
relatedness, and growth.

Core
CoreNeeds
Needs Concepts:
Concepts:
Existence:
Existence:provision
provisionof More
basic
of Morethan
thanone
oneneedneedcan
can
basicmaterial
material be operative at the same
be operative at the same
requirements.
requirements. time.
time.
Relatedness:
Relatedness:desire
desirefor IfIfaahigher-level
relationships.
for higher-levelneed
need
relationships. cannot
cannotbe befulfilled,
fulfilled,the
the
Growth: desire
desiretotosatisfy
satisfyaalower-
Growth:desire
desirefor
for level need increases.
lower-
personal
personaldevelopment.
development. level need increases.

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 David
David McClelland’s
McClelland’s Theory
Theory of
of Needs
Needs

Need for Achievement Need for Affiliation

The drive to excel, to achieve The desire for friendly
in relation to a set of and close personal
standards, to strive to relationships.
succeed.

Need for Power nPow

The need to make others
behave in a way that they
would not have behaved
otherwise.
nAch nAff

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 McClelland’s
McClelland’s Theory
Theory of
of Needs
Needs (cont.)
(cont.)
 Need for achievement (nAch) - The drive to excel, to
achieve in relation to a set of standards, and to strive to
succeed
 Need for power (nPow) - The need to make others behave in
a way they would not have behaved otherwise
 Need for affiliation (nAff) - The desire for friendly and close
interpersonal relationships

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 Research
Research on
on
McClelland’s
McClelland’s Theory
Theory

 High achievers prefer jobs with personal responsibility,

responsibility
feedback,
feedback and intermediate degree of risk
 High achievers are not necessarily good managers
 Affiliation and power closely related to managerial success
 Employees can be trained to stimulate their achievement need

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 Matching
Matching High
High Achievers
Achievers and
and Jobs
Jobs

E X H I B I T 6–4
E X H I B I T 6–4

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 E X H I B I T 6–5
E X H I B I T 6–5

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 Goal-Setting
Goal-Setting Theory
Theory (Edwin
(Edwin Locke)
Locke)
Goal-Setting Theory
The theory that specific and difficult goals, with
feedback, lead to higher performance.

Factors influencing the goals–

performance relationship:
Goal commitment, adequate self-
efficacy, task characteristics, and
national culture.

Self-Efficacy
The individual’s belief that he or
she is capable of performing a task.
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 Goal-Setting
Goal-Setting Theory
Theory

 Goals are a potent motivating force

 Specific goals lead to increased performance
 Difficult goals, when accepted, result in higher output
than easy goals
 Holding ability and acceptance constant; the more
difficult the goals, the higher the level of performance
 Goals can be a major source of work motivation

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 Reinforcement
Reinforcement Theory
Theory

The assumption that behavior is a function of its

consequences.

Concepts:
Concepts:
Behavior
Behaviorisisenvironmentally
environmentallycaused.
caused.
Behavior
Behaviorcan
canbebemodified
modified(reinforced)
(reinforced)by
by
providing
providing(controlling)
(controlling)consequences.
consequences.
Reinforced
Reinforcedbehavior
behaviortends
tendstotobe
berepeated.
repeated.

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 Reinforcement
Reinforcement Theory
Theory

 Reinforcement conditions behavior

 Behavior is environmentally caused
 Reinforcers control behaviors
 Consequences immediately following response increase
the probability of repeated behavior
 Ignores the inner state of person
 Concentrates solely on what happens when person takes
some action
 People will exert more effort on tasks that are reinforced

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 Job
Job Design
Design Theory
Theory

Job Characteristics
Model Characteristics:
Characteristics:
Identifies five job 1.1. Skill
Skillvariety
variety
characteristics and their 2.2. Task
relationship to personal Taskidentity
identity
and work outcomes. 3.3. Task
Tasksignificance
significance
4.4. Autonomy
Autonomy
5.5. Feedback
Feedback

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 Job
Job Design
Design Theory
Theory (cont’d)
(cont’d)
 Job Characteristics Model
– Jobs with skill variety, task identity, task significance,
autonomy, and for which feedback of results is given,
directly affect three psychological states of employees:
• Knowledge of results
• Meaningfulness of work
• Personal feelings of responsibility for results

– Increases in these psychological states result in

increased motivation, performance, and job
satisfaction.

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 Job
Job Design
Design Theory
Theory (cont’d)
(cont’d)

Skill Variety
The degree to which a job requires
a variety of different activities.

Task Identity
The degree to which the job requires completion of
a whole and identifiable piece of work.

Task Significance
The degree to which the job has a substantial
impact on the lives or work of other people.
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 Job
Job Design
Design Theory
Theory (cont’d)
(cont’d)

Autonomy
The degree to which the job provides substantial
freedom and discretion to the individual in
scheduling the work and in determining the
procedures to be used in carrying it out.

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 Job
Job Design
Design Theory
Theory (cont’d)
(cont’d)

Feedback
The degree to which carrying out the work activities
required by a job results in the individual obtaining
direct and clear information about the effectiveness
of his or her performance.

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 Expectancy
Expectancy Theory
Theory

Expectancy Theory (Victor Vroom)

The strength of a tendency to act in a certain way
depends on the strength of an expectation that the
act will be followed by a given outcome and on the
attractiveness of that outcome to the individual.

E X H I B I T 6–8
E X H I B I T 6–8

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 Expectancy
Expectancy Theory
Theory Relationships
Relationships

 Effort–Performance Relationship
– The probability that exerting a given amount of effort
will lead to performance.
 Performance–Reward Relationship
– The belief that performing at a particular level will lead
to the attainment of a desired outcome.
 Rewards–Personal Goals Relationship
– The degree to which organizational rewards satisfy an
individual’s goals or needs and the attractiveness of
potential rewards for the individual.

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 Expectancy
Expectancy Theory
Theory (cont.)
(cont.)

1. Attractiveness - The importance the individual places on the

potential outcome or reward that can be achieved on the
job; considers the unsatisfied needs of the individual
2. Performance-reward linkage - The degree to which the
individual believes that performing at a particular level will
lead to the attainment of a desired outcome
3. Effort-performance linkage - The probability perceived by
the individual that exerting a given amount of effort will
lead to performance

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 Implications
Implications for
for Managers
Managers

1. Recognize individual differences

2. Match people to jobs
3. Use goals
4. Ensure that goals are perceived as attainable
5. Individualize rewards
6. Link reward to performance
7. Check the system for equity

© 2005 Prentice Hall Inc. All rights reserved. 6–31