INTRODUCTION

 It is difficult to distinguish the characteristics of a

building which categorize it as tall.
 The outward appearance of tallness is a relative
matter.
 In a typical single-storey area, a five story building
will appear tall.
 In large cities, a structure must pierce the sky
around 70 to 100 stories if it is to appear tall in
comparison with its immediate neighbors.
Elphinstone Place Atlanta20 Burj Dubai
Taiwan_Taipei--101-Building Empire State Building
Tall building cannot be defined in specific terms
related to height or number of floors.
There is no consensus on what constitutes a tall
building or at what magic height, number of
stories, or proportion a building can be called
tall.
Perhaps the dividing line should be drawn where
the design of the structure moves from the field of
statics into the field of structural dynamics.
From the structural point of view, a building is
considered as tall when its structural
analyses and design are affected by the
lateral loads, particularly sway caused by
such loads.
In contrast to vertical load, lateral load effects
on buildings are quite variable and increase
rapidly with increase in height.
Under wind load the overturning moment at
the base of a building varies in proportion to
the square of the height of the building, and
lateral deflection varies as the fourth power
of the height of the building, others things
being the equal.
METHODOLOGY

Petronas Malayasia Spire_Chicago_Townhouses

There are three major factors to consider in the
design of all structures: strength, rigidity, and
stability.
As height increases, the rigidity and stability
requirements become more important, and they are
often the dominant factors in the design.
Either the size of the members may be increases
beyond and above the strength requirements.
The second and more elegant approach is to
change the form of the structure into something
more rigid and stable to confine the deformation
and increase stability.
 Due to the P-∆ effect, in which the eccentricity of
the gravity load increases to such a magnitude
that it brings about the collapse of the columns
as a result of axial loads.
 Therefore, an important stability criterion is to
assure that predicted wind loads will be below
the load corresponding to the stability limit.
 The second consideration is to limit the lateral
deflection to a level that will ensure that
architectural finishes and partitions are not
damaged.
Tallest in Shangai
REFERENCES

Tall Building In Japan

 In general, for high-rise buildings the resistance to
overturning moment and lateral deflection will almost
always require additional material over and above that
required for gravity load alone.
 The material required for floor framing is a function of
the column-to-column span and not the building
height.
 However, the material required for the vertical system,
such as columns and walls, in high-rise structure is
substantially more than that of a low-rise building.
 The material increases in the ratio (n + 1) / 2, where n is
the number of floors, because the vertical components
carrying the gravity loads will need to be strengthened
for the full height of the building, requiring more vertical
steel than a one-story structure having the same floor
area.
 For example in a steel building using rigid frame action,
the total weight of approximately 117 kg/m2 of structural
steel is split evenly at about 39 kg/m2 for each of the
three subsystems, namely, (1) floor framing, (2) gravity
columns, and (3) wind bracing system.
 The material quantities needed with reinforced concrete
buildings also increase as the number of stories
increases.
 The increase in the material for gravity load is more than
steel, whereas the additional material required for lateral
load is not as high as for steel, since weight of additional
gravity loads helps to resist the lateral deflection and
overturning moment.
 The additional gravity load, on the other hand, can
aggravate the problem of designing for earthquake
forces.
 The structure usually accounts for 20 to 30
percent of the cost of a tall building.
 For building above 50 stories, the cost of a
reasonable wind bracing system may work out,
at most, to one-third of the structural cost.
 Therefore compared to the total cost of the
building, wind bracing costs, which are in the
range of 7 to 10 percent, represent far from an
overwhelming portion of the total cost.
 It may appear from the foregoing that
optimization of the structural cost alone may not
be worth the effort.
 The goal, therefore, is to optimize the overall
cost, a process that normally takes place in the
early stages of the project development.
 The structural cost is almost invariably studied
together with the impact of the structure on
other items such as increased or decreased
floor-to-floor height, leasability of the floors, etc.
 Baron Jenney's
First Leiter building,
completed in 1879
in Chicago
 Historically, the unit weight of structural framing
members in term of, say, average weight per
unit floor area appears to be progressively
decreasing over the years.
 For example, a survey of tall building built in the
period 1950 - 1990 will verify that in this period it
was possible to build a 100-story building with
perhaps no more than 147 kg/m2 of steel as
compared to the 205 kg/m2 of steel used for the
Empire State Building in the 1930’s.
 The reasons for this gradual decrease are manifold, as
can be seen from the following list.
 1. Innovative design concepts. Structural engineers are
continually seeking better and more efficient methods of
resisting the lateral loads.

 Some of the common approaches are:

 i) Increase the effective width of subsystems to resist the
overturning moment.
 ii) Design systems such that the components interact in
the most efficient manner.
 iii) Use interior or exterior bracing for the full width of the
building.
 iv) Arrange floor framing in such a way that all or most of
the gravity loading is directly carried by the primary
lateral-load-carrying components.
 v) Manipulate the dispersion of materials in composite
construction consisting of concrete and structural steel in
a manner such that materials are used to their best
advantage.
 vi) Minimize the bending induced by wind loads in the
primary components.
 vii) Employ truss action to eliminate bending in columns
and spandrels.
 viii) Use rounded plan shapes to reduce the magnitude
of the wind pressure.
 ix) Arrange closely spaced columns at the exterior to
support most or all of the gravity loads and all the lateral
loads.
 x) Suspend floors from a central core such that the total
gravity load acting on the core will induce enough hold-
down forces to counteract the overturning moment.
 xi) Use an interior braced core that interacts with exterior
columns via belt and outrigger trusses.
 xii) Use exterior steel plate curtain walls to resist lateral
forces.
 2. Use of high-strength low-alloy steels. Today it is a
common practice to use 500 MPa steel in most
composite floor framing systems, gravity columns, and
not too infrequently in lateral-load-resisting elements.
 3. Increased use of welding as compared to bolting,
which effects a saving in the range of 8 to 15 percent in
the weight of steel.
 4. Increased use of composite construction.
52 storey Woolworth
Building (1913)
 5. Application of computers to both the design
and the analytical processes.
 6. Gradual increase in the allowable stresses in
the materials based on research and successful
past performance.
 7. A reduction in the weight of other construction
materials, like partition and curtain walls.
 In concrete construction, major factors
responsible for reducing the reinforcement and
concrete quantities are:
 1. New framing techniques, such as skip joist
construction in which every other joist is eliminated, have
caught on in high-rise construction with a consequent
reduction in the weight of structural frame.
 2. Increased use of mechanical couplers in
reinforcement for transferring both compression and
tensile forces.
 3. Use of welded cage for column ties, beam stirrups,
etc., which reduces the amount of reinforcement steel.
 4. Use of high strength concrete; 40 MPa is quite
common, and strengths up to 70MPa are being specified
on vertical components of high-rises.
 5. Use of lightweight aggregate typically reduces 50 to
100 kg/m2 in the dead load of the structure, resulting in
savings of approximately 10 to 15 percent in the
reinforcement requirement.
 6. Most codes do not require as great a thickness of
slabs when structural lightweight concrete is used.
Typically a thickness of 12 mm of concrete can be taken
off from floor slabs without reducing the fire rating.
 7. Use of more high strength steel
reinforcement.
 8. Use of the state-of-the-art design
methods.
 A comparative height list of various
buildings is given in the following table:
 YEAR STOREY HEIGHT(m)
1. Taipei 101, Taipei, Taiwan 2004 101 508
2. Petronas Tower 1, KL, Malaysia 1998 88 452
3. Petronas Tower 2, KL, Malaysia 1998 88 452
4. Sears Tower, Chicago 1974 110 442
5. Jin Mao Building, Shanghai 1999 88 421
6. Two Int Finance Cen, Hong kong 2003 88 415
7. CITIC Plaza, Guangzhou, China 1996 80 391
8. Shun Hing Square, Shenzhen, China 1996 69 384
9. Empire State Building, New York 1931 102 381
10. Central Plaza, Hong Kong 1992 78 374
11. Bank of China, Hong Kong 1989 70 367
12. Emirates Tower One, Dubai 1999 54 355
13. Tuntex Sky Tower, Kaohsiung, Taiwan 1997 85 348
 YEAR STOREY HEIGHT(m)

14.Aon Centre, Chicago 1973 80 346

15.The Center, Hong Kong 1998 73 346
16.John Hancock Center, Chicago 1969 100 344
17.Shimao Int Plaza, Shanghai 2005 60 333
18.Minsheng Bank Bld,China UC06 68 331
19.Ryugyong Hotel,Korea 1995 105 330
20.Q1, Gold Coast, Australia 2005 78 323
21.Burj al Arab Hotel, Dubai 1999 60 321
22.Nina Tower I, Hong Kong UC06 80 319
23.Chrysler Building, New York 1930 77 319
24.Bank of America Plaza, Atlanta 1993 55 317
25.U.S. Bank Tower, Los Angeles 1990 73 310
Chicago Tribunal
Tower (1922)
Chrysler building
 Tall buildings have a unique appeal, even a
mystery associated with their design.
 Developments in the last five to seven decades
have produced many slender high-rise buildings,
demanding that particular attention to be paid to
their complex behavior under lateral loads.
 High-rise architecture is continuously changing, and
prismatic shapes that were once very popular
have given rise to terraced, set-back and splayed
elevations.
 Computers have given the structural engineer of
today the tools to respond to this changing
architecture with daring structural solutions.
 No longer does the structural engineer require that
the building be regular in plan and the interior and
exterior columns line up with each other.
 Ego and competition still play a part in determining
the height of a building, but various other social
and economic factors, such as increase in land
values in urban areas and higher density of
population, have led to a great increase in the
number of tall buildings all over the world.
 In masonry structures, the percentage of area occupied
by the vertical structural elements, i.e., columns, walls
and braces, was inordinately large compared to the
gross floor area.
 The area occupied by the walls of the 17-story building in
Chicago is 15 percent of the gross area at ground floor
with wall thicknesses of 2.1 m.
 Two technological developments, the elevator and model
metal frame construction, removed the prevailing
limitations on the height of the buildings, and the race for
tallness was on.
 Today, with the use of computers, buildings are
planned and designed which have little or no
historic precedent.
 New structural systems are conceived and
applied to extremely tall buildings in a practical
demonstration of the engineer’s confidence in
the predictive ability of the analysis, the methods
used, and the reliability of computer solutions.
 The development of metal trusses made it
possible to roof column-free interior spaces
easily and economically.
The configuration tries to simultaneously satisfy
(1) the requirements of site, (2) the requirements of
the building program, and (3) the requirements of
appearance.
For a building to be successful, it should do the
following:
1. Create a friendly and inviting image that has
positive values to building owners, users, and
observers.
2. Fit the site, providing proper approaches to the
plaza with a layout congenial for people to live,
work and play.
 3. Be energy efficient, providing space with
controllable climate for its users.
 4. For office buildings, allow flexibilities in office
layout with easily divisible spaces.
 5. Most spaces oriented to provide best views.
 6. Most of all, the building must make economic
sense, without which none of the modern high-
rise development would be a reality.