Seminar on the Concept of stresses

and Design of Cylindrical pressure

vessel
Dr. Ahmad Nawaz
PhD Mechanical Engineering
(Specialization in mechanics)
 STRESS
• Stress can be defined as a measure of the internal reaction to an externally applied
force. It is due to the internal resistance of particles inside the body.
• When some external forces are applied to a body, then the body offers internal
resistance to these forces. This internal opposing force per unit area is called 'stress'.
It is denoted by the Greek letter σ (sigma) and its formula is as following

(External)

(Geometry)
The unit of stress is the units of force divided by the units of area.

In SI, force is measured in newtons (N) and area is measured in

square meters (m2). Thus the units for stress are newtons per square
meter (N/m2). Frequently, one newton per square meter is referred to
as one Pascal (Pa).

In US customary units, force is measured in pounds (lb). With area

measured in square inches, the units for stress are pounds per
square inch (lb/in2), frequently abbreviated as psi.

Since kip is often used to represent kilopound (1 kip = 1000 lb, 2 kips
= 2000 lb etc). ksi is used an abbreviation for 1 kip per square inch
(1000 lb/in2), for example, 8 ksi = 8000 psi.
 Concept of Stress
The fundamental concepts of stress can be illustrated by considering a straight bar with a constant cross-sectional area A that
is loaded by axial forces F at the ends, as shown in the Figure.

The external load causes internal forces called stresses. To investigate the internal stresses produced in the bar by the axial
forces, we make an imaginary cut at section c-c. This section is taken perpendicular to the longitudinal axis of the bar.

We now isolate the part of the bar to the left of the cut as a free body. The tensile load F acts at the left hand end of the free
body; at the other end are forces representing the action of the removed part of the bar upon the part that remains.
These forces are continuously distributed over the cross section. The intensity of force (that is, the force per unit area) is called
the stress and is commonly denoted by the Greek letter σ (sigma). Assuming that the stress has a uniform distribution over the
cross section (see Figure), we can readily see that its resultant is equal to the intensity σ times the cross-sectional area A of
the bar.

Furthermore, from the equilibrium (balancing of forces) of the body shown in Figure, it is also evident that this resultant must
be equal in magnitude and opposite in direction to the applied load F. Hence, we obtain
 Strength
It is a material property which defines the maximum stress a body can
withstand before failure occurs.
It is the resistance offered by a material when subjected to external loading.
So, stronger the material the greater the load it can withstand.
Depending upon the type of load applied the strength can be tensile,
compressive, shear or torsional.
Sample Problem #04

Homogeneous bar : Material should be same throughout all

parts of the bar

m  800kg
 Br  90 MPa
 St  120 MPa
LBr  4m
LSt  3m
ABr  ?
AS t  ?
 SOLUTION:
To find forces PA and PB, we consider the free body diagram

 Fy  0 MA  0
PA  PB  W W (5)  PB (10)  0
PA  PB  (800  9.8) N 5 5
PB  W  (800  9.8)  3920 N
10 10
PA  PB  W
PA  W  PB
PA  (800  9.8)  3920
PA  7840  3920
PA  3920 N

PA PB
 Br   St 
ABr ASt
PA 3920 N PB 3920 N
ABr    43.6 10 6 m 2 ASt    32.7 10 6 m 2
 Br 90 106 N  St 120 106
N
m2 m2
ABr  43.6mm2 ASt  32.7mm2
 Types of stresses
When we apply some external force on the body, some amount of internal force which is equal but opposite in direction is
generated, this internal force per unit area is called stress. We denote this by Greek symbol σ and its formula is as following
σ = F/A
In SI, the units are Pascal (Pa).

The important types of simple stresses are

1. Tensile stress
2. Compressive stress
3. Shear stress

Tensile and compressive stress is causes by forces perpendicular to the areas on which they act.
For this reason, tensile and compressive stresses are frequently called normal stresses.

When we apply two equal forces but opposite in direction on a rod towards outside, it elongates and the type of stress
generate at that time is called tensile stress.

When we apply two equal forces but opposite in direction on a rod in such a way that it compresses the rod, then the type of
stress generates at that time is called compressive stress.
 Shear stress
Shear stress is caused by forces acting along or parallel to the area resisting the forces.

For this reason, a shearing stress may be called a tangential stress.

A shearing stress is produced whenever the applied loads cause one section of a body to tend to slide past its adjacent
section.
Shear stress is denoted by Greek letter τ and the formula is as following

τ =Tangential force/ Resisting area

Several examples are shown in Figure 1-11.

In (a) the rivet resists shear across its cross-sectional area, whereas in the clevis at (b) the bolt resists shear across two
cross-sectional areas;

Case (a) may be called single shear and case (b) double shear.

In (c) a circular slug is about to be punched out of a plate; the resisting area is similar to the milled edge of a coin. In each
case, the shear occurs over an area parallel to the applied load. This may be called direct shear in contrast to the induced
shear that may occur over sections inclined with the resultant load, as was illustrated in Figure 1-4a.
Shear : load parallel to area

Normal : load perpendicular to area

 .
A shearing stress is produced whenever the applied loads cause one section of a body to tend to slide past its adjacent section
Rivets resist shear across its cross-sectional area.
 In Figure (c) a circular slug is about to be punched out of a plate; the resisting
area is similar to the milled edge of a coin. In this case, the shear occurs over
an area parallel to the applied load.

Die

Slug

Slug: a piece of metal shaped like a coin

Sample Problem #06

d  Diameter of hole  20mm  20 10 3 m

t  Thickness of plate  25mm  25 10 3 m
  Shear strength  350MN / m 2
v  Shear force  ?

SOLUTION :
v
 Shear area =
A Circumference of the
punched circle multiplied by
the specimen thickness
Area  Circumfere nce  Thickness
A  D  t

v v
 
A Dt
 v  Dt 
v   (20 10 3 )( 25 10 3 )(350 106 )
v  549778.7 N  550kN
 Thermal Stresses
All of the members and structures that we have considered so far were assumed to
remain at the same temperature while they were being loaded. We are now going to
consider various situations involving changes in temperature.

If the temperature increases, generally a material expands, whereas if the temperature

decreases, the material contract.

Ordinarily, this expansion or contraction is linearly related to the temperature increase

or decrease that occurs.

If this is the case, and the material is homogeneous and isotropic, it has been found
from experiment that the deformation of a member having a length L can be calculated
using the formula
 Coefficient of linear expansion
To understand thermal expansion, consider a simple model of a solid, the atoms of which are held together in a regular array.

As the temperature increases, the kinetic energy in

vibration of the atoms and molecules also increases. The
increased vibration makes each particle take up a little
more space, causing thermal expansion.

The forces between atoms can be compared to the forces that would be exerted by an array of springs connecting the atoms
together. At any temperature above absolute zero (–273.15°C), the atoms of the solid vibrate.

When the temperature is increased, the amplitude of the vibrations increases, and the average distance between atoms
increases. This leads to an expansion of the whole body as the temperature is increased. The change in length that arises from
a change in temperature (ΔT) is designated by δT.

Through experimentation, we find that the change in length δT is proportional to the change in temperature ΔT and the original
length L. Thus,

where α is called the coefficient of linear expansion.

It can be defined as the fractional change in length per unit change in temperature. This coefficient has different values for
different materials.

A larger value means that the material expands more over a set temperature rise than a material with a lower coefficient.
 Thermal Stresses

At room temperature 

After raising the

temperature by DT

• A temperature change results in a change in length or thermal strain. There

is no stress associated with the thermal strain unless the elongation is
restrained by the supports.
Thermal Stresses
If temperature deformation is permitted to occur freely, no load or stress will be induced in
the structure. But in some cases it may not be feasible to permit these temperature
deformations; the result is that internal forces are created that resist them. The stresses
caused by these internal forces are known as thermal stresses.
For a homogeneous rod mounted between unyielding supports as shown, the thermal
stress is computed as:

Treat the additional support as redundant and apply the principle of superposition.

Deformation due to temperature changes;

Redundant :1. Exceeding what is
necessary or natural; superfluous.
2. Needlessly repetitive

Deformation due to equivalent axial stress;

The thermal deformation and the deformation from the redundant support must be
compatible.

where σ is the thermal stress in MPa, E is the modulus of elasticity of the rod in MPa.
Long structures such as railway tracks and
pipelines can fail from buckling instability by such
stresses. In the picture shown, a worker inspects
a buckled railway track that has failed from the
action of heat. The rail component - which is
welded at both ends to the next bit of track - is
constrained to the original length and so the
thermal expansion, in turn, introduces a
compressive stress along its length. When this
stress becomes too large, the rail cannot sustain
it in its original shape and it buckles sideways as
shown.
This process is highly unstable and can lead to
unsafe designs if the mechanics of this type of
system are not well understood. It can be seen in
the photograph that the buckling is localized to
one section of track, this is an important and
generic characteristic of long structures that have
some sort of support along their length.
Railway track: Railway tracks are an example where the concept of thermal expansion is used.
Space is left between railway tracks as an allowance for their expansion when temperature
increases, otherwise the rails may buckle.

Gaps between successive lengths of rails

Thermal stresses can cause the failure of machine components, buildings, and
structural members. Expansion joints and other means, including gaps between
successive lengths of rails, gaps between the blocks of a dam, and rollers on
bridge supports, are used to prevent such failures.

Bridges have expansion joints to allow for

thermal expansion of concrete.
Most bridges are built with gaps that allow the bridge to expand
without cracking the material.
Ti  20 o C
T f  20 o C
P  5000 N
 max  130 MPa
m
  11.7  10 6
m oC
E  200  109 N / m 2

d min  ?
As the temperatu re of the rod is decreasing , therefore the temperatu re stresses will be tensile.
 Total   P   T
P
  EDT
A
5000
130 106   (11.7 10 6 )( 200 109 )( 40)
A
5000
130 106   93.6 106 Upon heating (Tf > Ti ), the stress is
A
compressive (σ < 0), since rod expansion
5000
 130 10  93.6 10
6 6
has been constrained.
A
5000
 36 106 If the rod is cooled(Tf < Ti ), a tensile stress
A will be imposed(σ > 0).
5000  (36 10 ) A
6

5000 d 2
A 3 6
 0.1373 10  137.3 10 m  137.3mm 2 2
 A
36 106 4
d 2
137.3 
4
4(137.3)
d2   174.8

d  13.2mm
 Strain
Whenever a force is applied to a body, it will tend to change the body’s shape and size.
These changes are referred to as deformation.

Load will cause all material bodies to deform and, as a result, points in the body will
undergo displacements or changes in position.

Normal strain is a measure of the elongation or contraction of a small line segment in the
body.

To obtain the unit of deformation or strain ε, we divide the elongation δ by the length L in
which it was measured, thereby obtaining
 Thin-Walled Pressure Vessels
• Pressure vessels are the containers for fluids under high pressure.
• Cylindrical or spherical vessels are commonly used in industry to serve as boilers or
tanks. When under pressure, the material of which they are made are subjected to a
loading from all directions.
• They are used in a variety of industries like:
• Petroleum refining
• Chemical
• Power
• Food & beverage
• Pharmaceutical
Thin wall pressure vessels (TWPV) are widely used in industry for storage and
transportation of liquids and gases when configured as tanks.

Spherical Cylindrical
A gauge pressure (pressure above
atmospheric pressure) P is developed
within the vessel by a contained gas or
fluid, which is assumed to have negligible
weight.
Here only the loadings in
the horizontal direction
are shown.

(The internal gauge pressure

developed by the contained gas or
fluid)
 F F
p 
A A
F  pA F  A
Sum of All Horizontal Forces (FH) = 0
This stress is called the longitudinal stress because it acts parallel to the
longitudinal axis of the cylinder.
t

t
 F F
p 
A A
F  pA F  A
This stress is usually called the tangential stress because it acts tangent to the surface of
the cylinder; other common names are circumferential stress, hoop stress, girth stress.
Girth: The distance around something; the circumference. Hoop: A circular or ring like object
Sample Problem #12

D  450mm  450 10 3 m

t  20mm  20 10 3 m
l  2m
p?
 l  140MPa
 t  60MPa

pD
t  t 
pD
2t 4t
p  450 10 3 p  450 10 3
60  3
 5.33MPa 140   24.89MPa
2  20 10 4  20 10 3