ANALOG AND DIGITAL

GAMMA CAMERA
1. AIMAN RASYIDAH BINTI MOHD RAHIMI (134370)
2. MUHAMMAD ARIF LUQMAN BIN KHALID (134376)
3. NUR ALIA NABIHAH BINTI AB AZIZ (134381)
4. NUR KHALILAH BINTI ADZEME (134387)
5. SITI HUMAIRAH BINTI MOHD RAZLAN TEO (134394)
WHAT IS ANALOG ???

Any continuous signal with the time-varying feature

(voltage/current/frequency)

Changes in physical phenomena detected by detector

(Gamma ray-PMT)
 representing the
X and Y position of the photon
signals interaction in the
The analog crystal
image
information
produced by the
scintillation indicates the energy of
camera consists the interaction falls
of three signals Z signal within the pulse-height
analyzer (PHA) energy
window set for the
radionuclide in use

The camera provides an analog signal or electrical waveform representing the

event.
In analog gamma camera, the output are displayed on CRT (Cathode Ray Tube)
ANALOG GAMMMA CAMERA
X POSITION
PULSE
CATHODE
ANALOG RAY
POSITION TUBE
CIRCUIT Y POSITON
PULSE

PULSES
FROM Z LOGIC
PMT PULSE
ANALOG
SUMMING
CIRCUIT
SINGLE
CHANNEL
Z
ANALYZER
(ENERGY
PULSE)
 DIGITAL GAMMA CAMERA
POSITION CORRECTED
AND POSITION AND
ENERGY ENERGY SIGNALS
SIGNALS
x x
DIGITAL
POSITION
CIRCUIT y y
DIGITAL
ENERGY
AND
PULSES ANALOG TO SPATIAL DIGITAL
FROM DIGITAL LINEARITY COMPUTER
INDIVIDUAL CONVERTER CORRECTI
PMT (ADC) ENERGY ON
DIGITAL z CIRCUIT z
SUMMING
CIRCUIT
 WHAT DOES DIGITIZATION
MEAN?

• A digital computer only handles numbers and in binary form

(power of 2).
• But, most of the instrument present the data in analog form
and digital computer cannot read it.
• Such a device, which automatically changes analogue signal into
digital signal (binary) is called as ADC analog-to-digital converter.
Inside PMT…

IN OUT
ADC
ANALOG TO
DIGITAL
CONVERTER

ANALOG SIGNAL
DIGITAL FORM

In other words, the signal is converted to a number, which represents the location in X, Y
space of the detected event. This number is placed in the memory of the computer.
 DIGITIZATION IN THE GAMMA CAMERA

the digitization starts at the PMT level.

The ADCs used in a scintillation camera are 7-9 bits

• X and Y ranges are equally divided into 27 = 128, 2^8 =
256 or 2^9 =512 equal divisions respectively.

In a gamma camera, maximum range of X and Y signals

will equal the diameter of the crystal
Depending on the ADC bit , if 7 bit= d/128cm or 8 bit=d/256 cm of distance,

• 11 inch (28cm) diameter crystal with 7-bit ADC/for an 20 inch (51cm) diameter
crystal with 8-bit ADC, this value is 0.2 cm.
• Each pixel in a modern digital gamma camera display corresponds to 0.2cm x 0.2cm
area of the crystal, which limits the resolution of an image.

higher bit ADC (10-12 bit) with more accuracy will not improve much the resolution.

• In terms of speed of ADC, it should be able to handle 100,000 signals/second,

because higher count rates are seldom seen in nuclear medicine.
ANALOD TO
DIGITAL
CONVERTER Two Important Parameters Of ADC
(ADC)

Speed – the faster the ADC, the

Accuracy - tells how close the
higher the rates of data it can
numeric data is to the analog
digitize without any loss of
signal.
information.
 HOWEVER
• In an ADC, a given range of signals is
broken into divisions, the more
divisions, the better its accuracy.
• The unit of division in the case of ADC
is in bit. • It takes more time to digitize
• A one bit 2^1 ADC divides a given the signal as the number of
range only into 2 equal parts bits in an ADC increases.
• A two bit 2^2 ADC divides range in 4 • Thus speed and accuracy are
equal parts inversely related for a given
• A three bit 2^3 ADC divide range into computer.
8 equal parts • More accuracy = less speed
• The more bits, the more accuracy (the and vice versa
value in the pixel)
 ANALOG/
DIGITAL Signals from the PM tubes are fed digital position logic
POSITIONING circuits, which determine the X-Y location of each
CIRCUIT
scintillation event, as it occurs, by using the weighted
average of the PM tube signals

X position is found by
Y position is found by
the difference
the difference
between the X+ and
between Y+ and Y-
X-
X = X+ - Y = Y+ -
X- Y-

X and Y position if PMT is connected to capacitor

 X = (X+ - X-) Y = (Y+ - Y-)
______ ______
(X+ + X-) (Y+ + Y-)

X and Y position when PMT is connected to resistors

instead of capacitors, each output is determined by the
Ohm’s law, where current is proportional to 1/R.
The X-axis positioning circuit divides the
PMT outputs between the X+ and X-
terminals
 The energy deposited by the gamma ray, E, which is
ANALOG/
DIGITAL proportional to the total measured pulse amplitude, also is
SUMMING computed by summing the individual PM tube signals.
CIRCUIT If E falls within the selected energy window, the event is
accepted and placed at the appropriate X-Y location in the
image.

ACCEPTED
EVENT
 The errors corrected for are dislocations which result
from the :

1. the non-linearity( straight line appears as curved) of

DIGITAL the PMT.
ENERGY AND
SPATIAL • PMT may have high light collection efficiency in the
LINEARITY centre which may result in a “pincushion” in the centre
CORRECTION and “Barrel” between the PMT
CIRCUIT • This kind of image may result non linearity pattern

2. energy window variations resulting from inhomogeneity

of the optical system which includes the crystal, light guide,
PMT and intensity variation from a uniform flood source.
(Image non-Uniformity)
Non linearity of PMT

Non-Linearity
Example

Differences in light
collecting efficiency

Applying the dislocation
correction factor -
producing a relocated image
whose contents have been
corrected for distortion due to
the non-linearity of the
response of the PMT
Non uniformity correction:
Advance approached
a set of microprosessor are
used to store correction
matrices for regional
differences in pulse height
spectra and for position
distortion
Images are corrected on event
by event basis
 ANALOG
OUTPUT

CRT
• Heated filament release electrons inside evacuated tube
• The screen coated with phosphor
• Control grid-allow electrons pass through, adjust numbers
• Accelerating anode-positive
• 2 set of plate sweep electron beam across phosphor screen
• Electron will cause screen to glow (phosphor luminescence)
Cathode Ray Oscilloscope
(CRO)
of Gamma Camera
Example of
CRT Monitor

Photographic
Film
 DATA ARCHIVING= THE
PROCESS OF MOVING
DATA THAT IS NO
LONGER ACTIVELY
USED-LONG TERM
RETENRTION

PICTURE ARCHIVING AND

DIGITAL OUTPUT COMMUNICATION SYSTEM

(PACS)
 SIMILARITY

BOTH ARE
ELECTRONIC INPUT ARE IN
(microchips and ANALOG
transistors that control FOR DIGITAL
and direct electric (THE ANALOG
currents) SIGNAL LATER
CHANGED TO
DIGITAL BY ADC)

USE PHA
(SCA/MCA)
 COMPARISON OF ANALOG AND
DIGITAL GAMMA CAMERA
ANALOG DIFFERENCES DIGITAL

CRT OUTPUT DIGITAL DISPLAY

(REPRODUCIBLE)
NO CORRECTION YES(DIGITAL ENERGY AND
SPATIAL LINEARITY
CORRECTION CIRCUIT)

CRYSTAL(NAI) AND PMT DETECTOR - CRYSTAL (NAI) AND PMT

- SEMICONDUCTOR DETECTOR
CSI(TL)
(NO PMT AND POSITION
CIRCUIT)
-IN HARDCOPY IMAGES - IN FORM OF DATA( STORED,
(PHOTOGRAPHIC FILM) DISPLAYED, TRANSFERRED
DUPLICATED)
 1 2
its speed and ease with which Even if the hard copy is lost or
it can acquire, analyze, store
destroyed, the data and
DIGITAL and display large amounts
COMPUTER images can be retrieved
of complex data.
even years after the procedure.
A D V A N T A N G E S

Medical images can be transmitted

from one hospital to another for
display and analysis.
4
The image result can be
manipulated(correction with
software for better diagnoses
  Gopal B. Saha,(2006) ,Gamma Cameras(Google Book Version).Gopal B.
R E F E R E N C E S Saha ,Physics and Radiobiology of Nuclear Medicine,(pp. 108-
117).United States of America. Springer, New York, NY Publishers.
Inc. Retrieved November,9,2018 from
https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1007%2F978-0-387-36281-6.pdf

 JERROLD T. BUSHBERG, J. A. S., EDWIN M. LEIDHOLDT JR,

JOHN M. BOONE, (2001). The Essential Physics of Medical Imaging

 Rami Gal, (1986), High Count Rate First-Pass Radionuclide

Angiography Using a Digital Gamma Camera. Retrieved November, 1,
2018 from https://europepmc.org/abstract/med/3519892

.Philips A. (2014) . Topic 8. Gamma Camera (II). Retrived November

18, 2018, from https://slideplayer.com/slide/252849/

 Ramesh
Chandra, (1998) , Nuclear Medicine Physics, 5 th Ed. Retrieved
November,9,2018
 ANY
QUESTIONS???