Impacts, Limitations Of Conventional Microelectronics

•The minimum size of a MOS transistor is determined by gate oxide breakdown and drain-
source punch-through.
•The packing density of fully active bipolar or static non-complementary MOS circuits
becomes limited by power dissipation.
•Demand for electronic devices with faster speed operation and smaller size.
•Feature size of electronic devices will be reduced to about 10 nm
•Advances in the deposition of very thin films to form
heterostructures in which electrons could be confined to a 2D
mesoscopic system.

• Difficulty to control doping profile

• Thermal limit- average energy of thermal fluctuations.

• Relativistic limit: Signals cannot propagate faster than the speed

of light.

• Uncertainty principle
 Trends In Microelectronics And Optoelectronics
•Superconducting Electronics
• High switching speeds (switching times between 1 and 10 ps)
• Low power dissipation
• Resistance of interconnect superconducting lines is practically null.

•Spintronics
•Based on the spin orientation of electrons.
•To develop MRAM memories
•Molecular Electronics
•Study and application of molecular building blocks for the fabrication of
electronic components
•Molecules can take parallel or ant parallel alignment of the spin of unpaired
electrons.
•3D supramolecular entities.

•Bioelectronics.
•Biology-inspired electronics

Optoelectronic devices
•Optoelectronic integrated circuits (OEIC).
•A monolithic device containing both photonic and electronic
sources, detectors, modulators, etc., on a single semiconductor
substrate.
• Electro-optical signal modulation
•An electro-optic effect is a change in the optical properties of a
material in response to an electric field .The modulation may be
imposed on the phase, frequency, amplitude, or polarization of the
beam.
 Characteristic Lengths In Mesoscopic Systems
Mesoscopic Physics

Mesoscopic physics deals with structures which have a size between the
macroscopic world and the microscopic or atomic one. These structures are also
called mesoscopic systems, or nanostructures since their size usually ranges from a
few nano metres to about 100 nm.
The electrons in mesoscopic systems show their wavelike properties, the states of
the electrons are wavelike and somewhat similar to electromagnetic radiation in
waveguides and therefore their behavior is dependent on the geometry of the
samples
Characteristic Lengths- For the description of the behaviour of electrons in solids
(i) de Broglie wavelength
For an electron of momentum p, there corresponds a wave of wavelength given by
the de Broglie wavelength:

wherem∗ is the electron effective mass.

(ii) Mean free path
• As the electron moves inside a solid, it is usually scattered by interactions with
crystal imperfections like impurities, defects, lattice vibrations (phonons), etc.

•“collisions” are inelastic- the values of energy and momentum of the system
after the interaction, differ from the corresponding ones before they interact.
• The distance covered by the electron between two inelastic collisions is usually
called the mean free path Ɩe of the electron in the solid.

If v is the speed of the electron, then

(iii) Diffusion Length

In a mesoscopic system of typical size L, the electrons can move either in the ballistic
regime or in the diffusive regime.

(In mesoscopic physics, ballistic conduction (ballistic transport) is the transport of

charge carriers in a medium (usually electrons), having negligible electrical resistivity
caused by scattering.)

if Ɩe> L, - diffusion process. In this case, the system is characterized by a diffusion

coefficient D.

In terms of D, the diffusion length Le is defined by

(iv) Screening length
In extrinsic semiconductors, the dopants or impurities are usually ionized and
constitute a main factor contributing to scattering. screening is the damping
of electric fields caused by the presence of mobile charge carriers.

Because of the screening of free carriers by charges of the opposite polarity, the
effect of the impurity over the distance is partially reduced. λs is called the screening
length and is given by

n - the mean background carrier concentration.

 (v) Localization length
In disordered materials, the electrons move by “hopping” transport between
localized states, or from a localized state to a bound state.

In order to describe the hopping transport and other mesoscopic properties of the
localized states, it is assumed that the electron wave function is described by

Electron transport in any crystalline solid takes place via electron hopping between two
neighbouring atomic sites with a vacancy in one site. Electron hops or tunnels to the vacancy
and thus moves from one location to another. One can visualize this process as electron
transport in one direction and a corresponding hole transport in the opposite direction.
Quantum Mechanical Coherence
•If the electron interacts inelastically with a defect, or any impurity,
the electrons change their energy and momentum, as well as the
phase of their wave function.
•The phase coherence length Lφ is defined as the distance travelled
by the electron without the carrier wave changing its phase.
•Once the coherent states loose their coherence, by inelastic
scattering, the corresponding waves cannot be superposed and
cannot interfere.
•In mesoscopic physics, the loss of coherence is usually called
dephasing.
•If electrons with phase φ1 interfere with electrons of phase φ2, the
amplitude of the resultant wave varies as cos(φ1 − φ2) and the
amplitudes can add up to each other, or they can be subtracted
depending on the phase difference.
 Low dimensional structures Quantum wells, wires and dots

Suppose that we have an electron confined within a box of dimensions Lx , Ly ,Lz.

If the characteristic length is λ, we can have the following situations:

This mesoscopic system is also called a quantum well. Quantum Well

where electrons are free to move only in two directions and confined to
one direction.
 Quantum Wire where electrons are free to move in only one direction and
confined to two directions. In this case electronic energy level bands will be still
widened and with much increased gap between bands.

Quantum Dot is a nano-sized particle where electrons are totally confined and cannot move
anywhere. In this case electronic energy level bands are widened to the maximum.
DENSITY OF STATES
Carbon Nanotubes
 .
•Carbon nanotubes (CNTs) are allotropes of carbon.
•These cylindrical carbon molecules useful in many
applications in nanotechnology, electronics, optics
and other fields of materials science, as well as in
architectural fields.
•They exhibit extraordinary strength and unique
electrical properties, and are efficient conductors of
heat.
•Their final usage, however, may be limited by their
potential toxicity.
 How CNTs are made
• Arc discharge
– CNTs Can be found in the carbon soot of graphite electrodes
during an arc discharge involving high current. This process
yields CNTs with lengths up to 50 microns.
• Laser Ablation
– In the laser ablation process, a pulsed laser vaporizes a
graphite target in a high-temperature reactor while an inert
gas is inserted into the reactor. Nanotubes develop on the
cooler surfaces of the reactor as the vaporized carbon
condenses.

• Other methods where CNTs are created:

- Chemical Vapor Decomposition
- Natural, incidental, and controlled flame environments
 Strength Properties
• Carbon nanotubes have the strongest tensile
strength of any material known.
• It also has the highest modulus of elasticity.
 Electrical Properties
• If the nanotube structure is armchair
then the electrical properties are
metallic.
• If the nanotube structure is chiral
then the electrical properties can be
either semiconducting with a very
small band gap, otherwise the
nanotube is a moderate
semiconductor
• In theory, metallic nanotubes can
carry an electrical current density of
4×109 A/cm2 which is more than 1,000
times greater than metals such as
copper
 Thermal Properties
• All nanotubes are expected to be very good
thermal conductors along the tube, but good
insulators laterally to the tube axis.

• It is predicted that carbon nanotubes will be able

to transmit up to 6000 watts per meter per Kelvin
at room temperature;

• The temperature stability of carbon nanotubes is

estimated to be up to 2800oC in vacuum and
about 750oC in air.
 Defects

• Defects can occur in the form of atomic

vacancies. High levels of such defects can
lower the tensile strength by up to 85%.

• Because of the very small structure of CNTs,

the tensile strength of the tube is
dependent on its weakest segment in a
similar manner to a chain, where the
strength of the weakest link becomes the
maximum strength of the chain.
 One-Dimensional Transport
• Due to their nanoscale dimensions, electron transport in
carbon nanotubes will take place through quantum effects
and will only propagate along the axis of the tube. Because of
this special transport property, carbon nanotubes are
frequently referred to as “one-dimensional.”
 Applications
• carbon-based single-electron transistors, that
significantly smaller than conventional
transistors.
 Quantum Computing
• Nanotubes can be filled with molecules that
have either an electronic or structural
property which can be used to represent the
quantum bit (Qubit) of information
 Health Hazards
• According to scientists at the National
Institute of Standards and Technology, carbon
nanotubes shorter than about 200
nanometers readily enter into human lung
cells similar to the way asbestos does, and
may pose an increased risk to health.
 Introduction to Graphene
• The first 2-dimensional material ever discovered.
• One-atom thick of carbon atoms arranged in a
hexagonal lattice.
• Found in graphite, coal, and created in other
fashions.
• Hard to manufacture in large quantities, just about
all graphene produced is used for R&D within
companies and universities.
• The strongest, lightest, and most conductive material
known to man.
 Amazing Physical Properties:
• The strongest material ever
measured. Up to 150X
stronger than the equivalent
weight of steel.
• Pliable as rubber and has
the ability to stretch up to
120% of its length then
recover its original shape.
• Extremely light weight, its
said that a single sheet of
Graphene covering a whole
football field would weigh
less than 1g.
 Electrical Properties
• Graphene is classified as a zero-overlap semi-metal,
which means that either holes or electrons are
charge carriers.
• Very high electrical conductivity when exposed to an
electric field.
• In a vacuum, it had a mobility that was up to 250X
that of Si. Out conducts copper by a thousand times.
• Effective mass at the Dirac point is zero for both
electrons and holes.
 Other Properties:
• Graphene oxide reportedly has the ability to attract
radioactive material.
• Safer creation of “Quantum Dots”. Reduces the price
from $1million a kg to $100 a ton.
• Also has some optical properties that are being
tested as we speak.
• Graphene has the ability to transmit up to 98% of
light.
 Chemical Vapour Deposition
• The most common practice in
creating graphene today.
• Typically a copper substrate is
exposed to a low pressure, 1000˚C
annealing process.
• Methane and Hydrogen gas flows
through the furnace.
• Carbon atoms from Methane
deposite on the copper, creating a
continuous graphene sheet.
 Silicon Carbide
• A small amount of silicon
carbide is placed in a box
with a hole in it.
• The box is sealed in a
vacuum or argon gas and
heated to 1500˚C.
• Si molecules evaporate from
the surface leaving a layer of
graphene.
 Chemical exfoliation
• The block graphite is
submerged into a solvent.
• An ultrasound is used to
cause a splitting effect
within the graphite
structure.
• Prolonged exposure causes
little platelets to be formed.
• Enriched by a centrifuge.
 How graphene is created:
Mechanical Exfoliation
• Typically involves scotch
tape.
• Stick the tape to a graphite
block.
• Use another piece of tape
and stick the two sticky
sides together. Repeat this
process 20-100x
• Press the piece of tape with
the graphene on a
substrate.
 CE via graphene oxide
• Uses the same process
as chemical exfoliation
but graphene is
oxidized.
• After the CE process, it
is then deposited on
substrate and reduced
to parent graphene in
some fashion.
 Optical Electronics
• Believed to mainly
be used in
touchscreens, OLED,
and LCD.
• Graphene matches
Indium-Tin Oxide
performance in its
basic state.
 Energy storage
• Graphene is being
experimented in
both supercapacitor
and battery
construction.
 Energy storage cont.
• Graphene based
supercapacitors have
potential to replace small
batteries.
• Uses the chemical
exfoliation discussed earlier.
• Was able to light LED’s with
a two minute charge for
around twelve hours.
 Graphene & Transistors
• Clocked at 427 Ghz.
• Create a false band
gap by employing
“Negative”
resistance.
• Another type of FET
uses dual gate
construction.
 Challenges Surrounding Graphene
• A very hydrophobic material
• Very expensive and hard to manufacture for most
companies.
• When deployed it seemed that the results weren’t
duplicated.
• Graphene is hard to produce in large usable sheets.
Small flakes are what we use to test usually.
Introduction to methods of fabrication of nano-
layers
1. Physical vapor deposition

(i) EVAPORATION,
(ii) SPUTTERING,
(iii) ION PLATING,
(iv) LASER ABLATION.
(i) Evaporation. This procedure is carried out in a bell.
• A crucible is heated up by a resistance or an electron gun until a
sufficient vapor pressure develops.
• The electron gun (e-gun) produces an electron beam of, e.g., 10
k eV.
• This beam is directed at the material intended for the
deposition on the substrate.
(ii) Sputtering.
•An atom or a molecule, usually in its ionized form, hits a solid state (target) and
knocks out surface atoms.
• This erosion is accompanied by a second process, namely the deposition of the
knocked out atoms on a second solid state (substrate).
•Sputtering is achieved by glow discharge with dc voltage.
•After mounting the samples on a holder, the chamber is rinsed repeatedly with Ar.
• The target, being attached a few centimeters above the substrate, is raised to a
negative dc potential from 500 to 5000 V, while both chamber and substrate are
grounded.
(iii) Ion plating.
•A negative voltage is applied to the substrate, while the anode is
connected with the source of the metal vaporization.
•The chamber is filled with Ar and the plasma is ignited.
•After cleaning the wafer, the e-gun is switched on and the
material is vaporized.
•The advantages of ion plating are higher energies of the
vaporized atoms and therefore better adhesion of the produced
films.
•The disadvantage is heating of the substrate and plasma cause
interactions with radiation-sensitive layers such as MOS oxides.
(iv) Laser ablation..
•A high-energy focused laser beam is capable of eroding the surface of a target rotating with a
velocity of one revolution per second.
•The material is vaporized on the substrate, and as a result, a film is produced on it
•The growth can be supported by heating the substrate (750 °C) and by chemical reactions .
•The used lasers are excimer, Nd:YAG, ruby, and CO2 lasers.
•Advantages of laser ablation are the deposition of materials of high-melting points, a good
control over impurities,
• A shortcoming is the formation of droplets on the vaporized layer.
 Formation of Silicon Dioxide-
Dry and wet oxidation methods

A Si wafer is cleaned is inserted in a quartz tube heated to a

temperature of about 1100 °C.
A flow of an oxidizing gas, either pure oxygen (dry oxidation) or
nitrogen driven through water (wet oxidation), is maintained.
When oxygen penetrates into the substrate, the Si surface reacts with
the oxygen and forms silicon dioxide.
CHEMICAL VAPOUR DEPOSITION
The CVD process is performed in an evacuated chamber.
The wafer is put on a carrier and heated to a temperature between 350 and 800 C
The gas flow hits the wafer at a normal or a glancing incidence, a reaction between two
species takes place.
Newly formed molecule adheres to the wafer surface and participates in the formation of
a new layer.
Ion Implantation
 Molecular Beam Epitaxy

Homoepitaxy- silicon-on-silicon
Heteroepitaxy - silicon-on-sapphire.
Vapor phase epitaxy- Molecular beam epitaxy
(MBE).
Liquid phase epitaxy (LPE),
Solid state epitaxy.
FABRICATION OF NANO PARTICLE
a) GRINDING WITH IRON BALLS
SOL GEL

• Method for producing solid materials from small

molecules.
• Protective Coatings
• Thin film and fibers
• Nanoscales powder
• Cheap and low temperature operation
• Very thin of metals oxide can be obtaine
• Better alternative approach to conventional production
of glasses
A sol (hydrosol) is a colloidal dispersion in liquid. A gel is a jelly-like substance formed
by coagulation of a sol into a gel.
The best known example of a sol gel process the production of SiO2.
Self assembly
 PRECIPITATION OF QUANTUM DOTS

Precipitation is used in the manufacturing of CdS, CdSe, CdTe,

GaAs, and Si nanocrystallites in silica glasses.
The contaminants are added to the melt, and after a further annealing
step from 600 to 1400 °C, they form precipitates of controllable size.