Chapter 2 Lms

Subramanya : Engineering Hydrology, Fourth Edition McGraw-Hill Education (India) Private Limited © 2013
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SCOPE:
2.1. Introduction
2.2. Forms of Precipitation
2.3. Weather Systems for Precipitation
2.5. Measurements of Precipitation
2.6. Raingauge Network
2.7. Preparation of Data
2.8. Presentation of Rainfall Data
2.9. Mean Precipitation Over An Area
2.10. Depth-Area-Duration Relationships
2.11. Frequency of Point Rainfall
2.12. Maximum Intensity/Depth-Duration-Frequency
Relationship
2.13. Probable Maximum Precipitation
2
INTRODUCTION
What does precipitation denotes?
• All forms of water reaching the earth from the
atmosphere.
For the precipitation to form:

• The atmosphere must have moisture
• Sufficient nuclei present for condensation
• Good weather condition for condensation
• Products of condensation must reach earth.
3
INTRODUCTION
• With right weather conditions, water vapour condenses
to form tiny water droplets of sizes < 0.1 mm in
diameter.
• Precipitation: water droplets join together to form larger

and heavier drops.
4
INTRODUCTION
The net precipitation & its

form depend on several
meteorological factors:
wind
humidity pressure ground
temperature
surface
5
FORMS OF PRECIPITATION
a) Rain:
• Main form of precipitation
• Water drops : > 0.5 mm, with max size: 6 mm
• Larger sizes break up into drops of smaller sizes during
its fall from the clouds.
• Rainfall can be classified as below:
Type Intensity
1. Light rain < 2.5 mm/h
2. Moderate rain 2.5 mm/h to 7.5 mm/h
3. Heavy rain >7.5 mm/h
6
INTRODUCTION
b) Snow
c) Drizzle
• A fine sprinkle of numerous water droplets of size <
0.5 mm.
• Intensity: < 1 mm/h.
• Drops are so small that they appear to float in the air.
d) Glaze
e) Sleet
f) Hail:
• Showery precipitation in the form of irregular
pellets/lumps of ice (> 8 mm).
• Occur in violent thunderstorms in which vertical
currents are very strong.
7
WEATHER SYSTEMS FOR

PRECIPITATION
Terms/processes connected with the weather systems:
a) Front:
- the interface between two distinct air masses.
b) Cyclone:
- A large low pressure region with circular wind motion.
8
WEATHER SYSTEMS FOR

PRECIPITATION
Tropical cyclone:
– Also known as cyclone (India), hurricane (USA) & typhoon

(SE Asia)
– Winds are anticlockwise in the northern hemisphere.
– Normal areal extent: 100 – 200 km in diameter.
– The centre of the storm (the eye) is10-50 km in diameter;
will be relatively calm.
– Outside the eye, very strong winds reaching to 200 km/h.
– The wind speed gradually decreases towards the outer
edge.
– Give moderate to excessive precipitation over very large
areas for several days.
9
10
WEATHER SYSTEMS FOR

PRECIPITATION
c) Anticylone:
- regions of high pressure
- usually with larger areal extent.
- the weather is usually calm at the centre.
- cause clockwise wind circulation in the northern
hemisphere.
- winds are of moderate speed
- at the outer edges, cloudy & precipitation conditions
exist.
11
WEATHER SYSTEMS FOR

PRECIPITATION
d) Convective precipitation:
- a packet of air which is warmer than the surrounding air
due to localized heating rises because of its lesser
density.
- air from cooler surroundings flows to take up its place
thus setting up a convective cell.
- the warm air continue to rise, undergoing cooling &
results in precipitation.
- areal extent: 10 km radius.
12
WEATHER SYSTEMS FOR

PRECIPITATION
e) Orographic precipitation:
- the moist air masses may get lifted-up to higher altitudes
due to presence of mountain barriers & undergo cooling,
condensation & precipitation.
- in mountain ranges, the windward slopes have heavy
precipitation & leeward slopes light rainfall.
13
MEASUREMENT OF
PRECIPITATION
• The precipitation is collected & measured in raingauge
(a.k.a pluviometer, ombrometer & hyetometer).
• The raingauge consists of a cylindrical-vessel assembly
kept in the open to collect rain.
• Raingauges:
– nonrecording raingauges
– recording raingauges
14
MEASUREMENT OF
PRECIPITATION
• For siting a raingauge:
• The ground must be level & in open; the
instrument must present a horizontal catch
surface.
• The gauge must be set as near the ground as
possible (to reduce wind effects), but must be high
to prevent splashing, flooding etc.
• The instrument must be surrounded by an open
fenced area. No object should be nearer to the
instrument than 30 m or twice the height of the
obstruction.
15
MEASUREMENT OF
PRECIPITATION
Nonrecording gauges:
• Example: Symon’s gauge.
• The rainfall is gauged every day at 8.30 AM and is
recorded as the rainfall of the day.
• The receiving bottle does not hold more than 10 cm –
during heavy rainfall, the measurement must be done &
recorded more frequently.
• The last reading must be taken at 8.30 AM the next day;
sum of the previous readings in the past 24 hours
entered as total of the day.
16
17
MEASUREMENT OF
PRECIPITATION
Recording gauges:
• Recording gauges produce a continuous plot of rainfall
against time.
a) Tipping-bucket type:
• 30.5 cm size raingauge
• The catch from the funnel falls onto one of a pair
of small buckets.
• These buckets are so balanced that when 0.25
mm of rainfall collects in one bucket, it tips &
brings the other in position.
18
MEASUREMENT OF
PRECIPITATION
a) Tipping-bucket type:
• The water is collected in a storage can.
• The tipping actuates an electrically driven pen to
trace a record on clockwork-driven chart.
• This type of gauge gives data on the intensity of
rainfall
19
MEASUREMENT OF
PRECIPITATION
b) Weighing-bucket type:
– The catch from the funnel empties into a bucket
mounted on a weighing scale.
– Weight of the bucket & its content are recorded on
a clockwork-driven chart.
– Have the capacity to run for as long as one week.
– Gives plot of the accumulated rainfall against time
20
MEASUREMENT OF
PRECIPITATION
c) Natural-syphon type:
– A.k.a float-type gauge
– Rainfall collected by a funnel-shaped collector is led
into a float chamber causing a float to rise.
– As the float rises, a pen attached to the float records
the elevation on a rotating drum driven by a
clockwork mechanism.
– A siphon empties the chamber when the float
reaches a pre-set max level.
21
22
MEASUREMENT OF
PRECIPITATION
Telemetering raingauges:
– A recording type
– Contains electronic units to transmit the data on
rainfall to a base station.
– Tipping-bucket type is usually adopted for this
purpose.
– Are of utmost use in gathering rainfall data from
mountainous & inaccessible places.
23
MEASUREMENT OF
PRECIPITATION
Radar measurement of rainfall:
– The meteorological radar is useful for measuring the
areal extent, location & movement of rain storms.
– Amounts of rainfall over large areas can be
determined.
– The radar emits a regular succession of pulses of
electromagnetic radiation in a narrow beam.
24
RAINGAUGE NETWORK
• To get the representative picture of the storm over a
catchment, the number of raingauges should be as large
as possible.
• However economic considerations, topography,
accessibility etc. restrict the number of gauges to be
maintained.
• World Meteorological Organization (WMO) recommends
the following density:
25
RAINGAUGE NETWORK
• In flat regions of temperate, Mediterranean & tropical
zones:
Ideal – 1 station for 600-900 km2
Acceptable – 1 station for 900- 3000 km2
• In mountainous regions of temperate, Mediterranean &
tropical zones:
Ideal – 1 station for 100-250 km2
Acceptable – 1 station for 25-1000 km2
• In arid & polar zones: 1 station for 1500-10000 km2
depending on the feasibility.
• 10% of raingauge stations should be equipped with self-

recording gauges.
26
RAINGAUGE NETWORK
Adequacy of rainfall stations:
• If there are already some raingauge stations in a
catchment, the optimal number of stations that should
2
exist: C 
N  v 
  
where N = optimal number of stations
ε = allowable degree of error in the
estimate of the mean rainfall.
Cv = coefficient of variation of the
rainfall values at the existing m
stations (in percent)
27
RAINGAUGE NETWORK
Adequacy of rainfall stations:
- If there are m stations in the catchment with each
recording rainfall values P1, P2,…., Pi, …Pm in a known
time, the coefficient of variation Cv is calculated as:
28
RAINGAUGE NETWORK
Example 2-1: A catchment has six raingauge stations. In a
year, the annual rainfall recorded by the gauges are as
follows:
Station A B C D E F
Rainfall (cm) 82.6 102.9 180.3 110.3 98.8 136.7
For a 10% error in the estimation of the mean rainfall,

calculate the optimum number of stations in the catchment.
29
RAINGAUGE NETWORK
Solution: For this data, m = 6, P = 118.6, σm-1 =35.04, ε =10
Cv = (100 x 35.04)/118.6 = 29.54

N = (29.54/10)2 = 8.7, say 9 stations
30
PREPARATION OF DATA
• Given the annual precipitation values, P1, P2, P3, …Pm at
neighbouring M stations 1, 2, 3, …, M respectively, it is
required to find the missing annual precipitation Px at a
station X not included in the above M stations.
• The normal annual precipitations N1, N2, …, Ni at each of
the above (M + 1) stations including station X are known.
• If normal annual precipitations at various stations are
within about 10% of the annual precipitation at station X:
Px = 1/M [P1 + P2 + … + Pm]
• If normal annual precipitations vary considerably:
Px = Nx/M [P1/N1 + P2/N2 + … + Pm/Nm]
31
RAINGAUGE NETWORK
Example 2-2: The normal annual rainfall at stations A, B, C,
and D in a basin are 80.97, 67.59, 76.28 and 92.01 cm
respectively. In the year 1975, the station D was inoperative
and the stations A, B and C recorded annual precipitations
of 91.11, 72.23 and 79.89 cm respectively. Estimate the
rainfall at stations D in that year.
Solution:
As the normal rainfall values vary more than 10%, the
normal ratio method is adopted.
PD = 92.01/3 x [91.11/80.79 + 72.23/67.59 + 79.89/76.28]
= 99.48 cm 32
TEST FOR CONSISTENCY OF

RECORD
• If the conditions of the recording of a raingauge station
have undergone a significant change during the period of
record, inconsistency would arise in the rainfall data of
that station.
• Common cause of inconsistency:
– shifting of a raingauge station to a new location
– the neighbourhood of the station undergoing a
marked change
– change in the ecosystem due to calamities, such as
forest fires, land slides
– occurrence of observational error from a certain
date.
33

RECORD
• The checking of inconsistency of a record is done by the
double-mass curve technique.
• A group of 5-10 base stations in the neighbourhood of
the problem station X is selected.
• The data of the annual/monthly/seasonal mean rainfall
of the station X & the average rainfall of the group of
base stations covering a long period → arranged in the
reverse chronological order.
• The accumulated precipitation of the station X (i.e. ΣPx) &
the accumulated values of the average of the group of
base stations (i.e. ΣPav) are calculated starting from the
latest record.
34

RECORD
The precipitation values at station X beyond the period
of change of regime is corrected by using the relation:
Pcx = Px (Mc/Ma)
where:
Pcx = corrected precipitation at any time period t1 at
station X
Px = original recorded precipitation at time period t1 at
station X
Mc = corrected slope of the double-mass curve
Ma = original slope of the double-mass curve
35
36

RECORD
Example 2-3: Annual rainfall data for station M as well as
the average annual rainfall values for a group of ten
neighbouring stations located in a meteorologically
homogeneous region are given below:
Test the consistency of the annual rainfall data of station M

and correct the record if there is any discrepancy. Estimate
the mean annual precipitation at station M.
37
Year Annual Average Year Annual Average

Rainfall Annual Rainfall Annual
of Station Rainfall of Station Rainfall
M (mm) of the M (mm) of the
group group
(mm) (mm)
1950 676 780 1965 1244 1400
1951 578 660 1966 999 1140
1952 95 110 1967 573 650
1953 462 520 1968 596 646
1954 472 540 1969 375 350
1955 699 800 1970 635 590
1956 479 540 1971 497 490
1957 431 490 1972 386 400
1958 493 560 1973 438 390
1959 503 575 1974 568 570
1960 415 480 1975 356 377
1961 531 600 1976 685 653
1962 504 580 1977 825 787
1963 828 950 1978 426 410
1964 679 770 1979 612 588 38

RECORD
Solution: The data is sorted in descending order, starting
from 1979. Cumulative values of station M rainfall (ΣPm) &
the ten station average rainfall values (ΣPav) are calculated
as shown in Table 2.1. The data then plotted with ΣPm on Y-
axis & ΣPav on X-axis to obtain a double mass curve plot
(Figure 2.8). It is seen that the data plots as two straight
lines with a break at the year 1969. The slope of best
straight light for 1979-1969 is Mc = 1.0295 & the slope of
the best straight line for 1968-1950 is Ma = 0.8779.
39
40
41
PRESENTATION OF
RAINFALL DATA
Mass curve of rainfall
– is a plot of the accumulated precipitation against
time, plotted in chronological order.
Hyetograph
– is a plot of the intensity of rainfall against the time
interval.
– derived from mass curve & usually represented as bar
chart.
– The area under the hyetograph represents total
precipitation received in the period.
42
43
44
PRESENTATION OF
RAINFALL DATA
Point rainfall
– a.k.a as station rainfall refers to the rainfall data of a
station.
– daily, weekly, monthly, seasonal or annual values
– Graphically represented as plots of magnitude vs
chronological time in the form of a bar diagram.
45
PRESENTATION OF
RAINFALL DATA
Moving average
– a technique for smoothening out the high frequency
fluctuations of a time series & to enable the trend in
rainfall.
– A window of time range m years is selected.
– Starting from the first set of m years of data, the
average of the data for m years is calculated & placed
in the middle year of the range m.
– The value of m can be 3 or more years; usually an odd
value.
– There are many ways of averaging; methods described
above is called Central Simple Moving Average.
46
47
Year Annual Rainfall 3 consecutive year total for 3-year moving mean
(mm) moving mean (Pi-1+Pi+Pi+1) (Col. 3/3)*
Pi
1950 676
1951 578 676+578+95=1349 449.7
1952 95 578+95+462=1135 378.3
1953 462 95+462+472=1029 343.0
1954 472 462+472+699=1633 544.3
1955 699 472+699+479=1650 550.0
1956 479 699+479+431=1609 536.3
1957 431 479+431+493=1403 467.7
1958 493 431+493+503=1427 475.7
1959 503 493+503+415=1411 470.3
1960 415 503+415+531=1449 483.0
1961 531 415+531+504=1450 483.3
1962 504 531+504+828=1863 621.0
1963 828 504+828+679=2011 670.3
1964 679 828+679+1244=2751 917.0
1965 1244 679+1244+999=2922 974.0
1966 999 1244+999+573=2816 938.7
48
49
MEAN PRECIPITATION OVER

AN AREA
Arithmetical-mean method
If P1, P2, …, Pi, ...Pn are the rainfall values in a given period
of N stations within a catchment, then:
P1  P2  ...  Pi  ...  Pn 1 N
P
N

N
P
i 1
i
50

AN AREA
Theissen-mean method
If P1, P2, …, P6 are the rainfall recorded by station 1, 2, …, 6
and A1, A2, …, A6 are the areas of the Theissen polygons, the
average rainfall over the catchment P is given by:
P1 A1  P2 A2  ...  P6 A6
P
 A1  A2  ...  A6 
M
In general for M stations,
PA i i M
Ai
P i 1
  Pi
A i 1 A
The ratios Ai/A = weightage factor for each station
51
52

AN AREA
Isohyetal method
If P1, P2, …, Pn are the values of the isohyets & if a1, a2, …,
an-1 are the inter-isohyet areas respectively, the mean
precipitation over the catchment of area A is given by:
 P1  P2   P2  P3   Pn 1  Pn 
a1    a2    ...  an 1  
P  2   2   2 
A
53
54

AN AREA
Example 2.5. For the catchment area shown in Fig. 2.15,
the details of Thiessen polygons surrounding each
raingauge and the recordings of the raingauges in the
month of August 2011 are given below.
Raingauge Station 1 2 3 4 5 6
Thiessen polygon area 720 380 440 1040 800 220
(km2)
Recorded rainfall in 121 134 145 126 99 115
mm during Aug. 2011
Determine the average depth of rainfall on the basin in
August 2011 by (i) arithmetic mean method, and (ii)
Thiessen mean method.
55

Solution. AN AREA
(i) Arithmetic Mean = 121  134  126
 127 mm
(ii) Thiessen Mean: 3
1 2 3 4 5
Raingauge Thiessen Thiessen Station Weighted
Station polygon area weightage reading station
factor rainfall
1 720 0.200 121 24.2
2 380 0.106 134 14.1
3 440 0.122 145 17.7
4 1040 0.289 126 36.4
5 800 0.222 99 22.0
6 220 0.061 115 7.0
Total catchment 3600 1.000 121.5
area 56
57

AN AREA
Example 2.6. In a catchment, whose shape can be
approximated by a pentagon, four raingauge are situated
inside the catchment. The coordinates of the corners of the
catchment that define its boundaries and the coordinates
of the four raingauge stations are given below. Also given
are the annual rainfall recorded by the four stations in the
year 2005. Determine the average annual rainfall over the
catchment in that by the Thiessen-mean method.
Distances are in Km Corner a is the origin of co-ordinates.
Catchment Corner Corner a Corner b Corner c Corner d Corner e
Boundary Co-ordinates (0,0) (120,0) (120,80) (60,140) (0,80)
Raingauge Station P Q R S
Station Co-ordinates (40,20) (80,20) (80,60) (40,80)
Annual Rainfall (cm) 120 110 100 125
58
59

AN AREA
Rain gauge Boundary Area (km2) Weightage Recorded Weighted
station of Thiessen factor station station
polygons rainfall rainfall
(cm) (cm)
1 2 3 4 5 6
P 301a 60 x 40 = 2400 0.1818 120 21.816
Q 102b 60 x 40 = 2400 0.1818 110 19.998
R 20dc [(60 x 40) + 0.3182 100 31.82
(60 x 60 x ½)]
= 4200
S 30de [(60 x 40) + 0.3182 125 39.775
(60 x 60 x ½)]
= 4200
Total area of catchment = 13200 1.0000 113.41
60
FREQUENCY OF POINT
RAINFALL
• The probability of occurrence of an event is studied by
frequency analysis of annual series of point rainfall.
• Terminology used in frequency analysis:
– Probability of occurrence of an event of a random
variable (e.g. rainfall) whose magnitude is equal to or
in excess of a specified magnitude X is denoted by P.
– The recurrence interval (a.k.a. return period):
T = 1/P
– The probability of the event not occurring in a given
year is q = (1-P).
61
100-year return period (Queensland, 2010)
62
FREQUENCY OF POINT
RAINFALL
The binomial distribution can be used to find the
probability of occurrence of the event r times in n
successive years.
where Pr,n = probability of a random hydrologic event

(rainfall) of given magnitude & exceedence probability P
occurring r times in n successive years.
63
FREQUENCY OF POINT
RAINFALL
Example 2-7: Analysis of data on maximum 1-day rainfall
depth at Chennai indicated that a depth of 300 mm had a
return period of 50 years. Determine the probability of a 1-
day rainfall depth equal to or greater than 300 mm at
Chennai occurring:
a) once in 20 successive years

b) two times in 15 successive years
c) at least once in 20 successive years
64
FREQUENCY OF POINT
RAINFALL
Solution: Here P = 1/50 = 0.02, q = (1 – P) = (1 – 0.02) = 0.98
a) n = 20, r = 1
P1,20 = 20!/(19!1!) * 0.02 * (0.98)19
= 20 * 0.02 * 0.68123
= 0.272
b) n = 15, r = 2
P2,15 = 15!/(13!2!) * (0.02)2 * (0.98)13
= 15 * 14/2 * 0.0004 * 0.769
= 0.323
c) P1 = 1 – (1-0.02)20
= 0.32
65
PLOTTING POSITION
• A simple empirical technique is to arrange the given
annual extreme series in descending order of magnitude
and to assign an order number m.
• For the 1st entry, m = 1, for the 2nd, m = 2, and so on till
the last event for which m = N = Number of years of
record.
• Weibull formula is an empirical formula and there are
several other empirical formula given in Table 2.8.
66
PLOTTING POSITION
67
PLOTTING POSITION
• However, Weibull formula is the most popular plotting
position.
• Having calculated P (and hence T) for all the events in the
series, the rainfall magnitude is plotted against the
corresponding T on a semi-log paper or log-log paper.
68
69
PLOTTING POSITION
Example 2-10: The record of annual rainfall at Station A
covering a period of 22 years is given below. (a) Estimate
the annual rainfall with return periods of 10 years and 50
years. (b) What would be the probability of an annual
rainfall of magnitude equal to or exceeding 100 cm
occurring at Station A? (c) What is the 75% dependable
annual rainfall at Station A?
70
71
72
MAXIMUM INTENSITY-
DURATION-FREQUENCY
RELATIONSHIP
• Maximum intensity-duration relationship
• Maximum depth-duration relationship
• Maximum intensity-duration-frequency relationship
• Maximum depth-duration-frequency curves.
73
MAXIMUM INTENSITY-
DURATION-FREQUENCY
RELATIONSHIP
Maximum intensity-duration relationship
Im = c/(t + a)b
where Im = maximum intensity,
a, b & c = coefficients
74
MAXIMUM INTENSITY-
DURATION-FREQUENCY
RELATIONSHIP
Maximum intensity-duration-frequency relationship (IDF)
i = KTx/(D+A)n
where i = maximum intensity (cm/h)

T = return period (years)
D = duration (hours)
K, x, a & n = coefficients
75
76
77
78
MAXIMUM INTENSITY-
DURATION-FREQUENCY
RELATIONSHIP
Example 2-11: The mass curve of rainfall in a storm of total
duration 270 minutes is given below. (a) Draw the
hyetograph of the storm at 30 minutes time step. (b) Plot
the maximum intensity-duration curve for this storm. (c)
Plot the maximum depth-duration curve for the storm.
Time since Start 30 60 90 120 150 180 210 240 270
(min)
Cumulative 6 18 21 36 43 49 52 53 54
Rainfall (mm)
79
MAXIMUM INTENSITY-
DURATION-FREQUENCY
RELATIONSHIP
Solution: (a) Hyetograph: The intensity of rainfall at various
time durations is calculated as shown below:
Time since Start 30 60 90 120 150 180 210 240 270
(min)
Cumulative 6.0 18.0 21.0 36.0 43.0 49.0 52.0 53.0 54.0
Rainfall (mm)
Incremental 6.0 12.0 3.0 15.0 7.0 6.0 3.0 1.0 1.0
depth of rainfall
in the interval
(mm)
Intensity (mm/h) 12.0 24.0 6.0 30.0 14.0 12.0 6.0 2.0 2.0
80
81
82
MAXIMUM INTENSITY-
DURATION-FREQUENCY
RELATIONSHIP
83
84
PROBABLE MAXIMUM
PRECIPITATION (PMP)
Definition: the greatest or extreme rainfall for a given
duration
: rainfall over a basin which would produce a
flood flow with virtually no risk being exceeded.
PMP = P + Kσ
where P = mean of annual maximum rainfall series

σ = standard deviation of the series
K = frequency factor
85

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Subramanya : Engineering Hydrology, Fourth Edition McGraw-Hill Education (India) Private Limited © 2013

For the precipitation to form:

• Precipitation: water droplets join together to form larger

The net precipitation & its

WEATHER SYSTEMS FOR

WEATHER SYSTEMS FOR

– Also known as cyclone (India), hurricane (USA) & typhoon

WEATHER SYSTEMS FOR

WEATHER SYSTEMS FOR

WEATHER SYSTEMS FOR

• 10% of raingauge stations should be equipped with self-

Rainfall (cm) 82.6 102.9 180.3 110.3 98.8 136.7

For a 10% error in the estimation of the mean rainfall,

Cv = (100 x 35.04)/118.6 = 29.54

TEST FOR CONSISTENCY OF

TEST FOR CONSISTENCY OF

TEST FOR CONSISTENCY OF

TEST FOR CONSISTENCY OF

Test the consistency of the annual rainfall data of station M

Year Annual Average Year Annual Average

TEST FOR CONSISTENCY OF

MEAN PRECIPITATION OVER

MEAN PRECIPITATION OVER

MEAN PRECIPITATION OVER

MEAN PRECIPITATION OVER

MEAN PRECIPITATION OVER

MEAN PRECIPITATION OVER

MEAN PRECIPITATION OVER

100-year return period (Queensland, 2010)

where Pr,n = probability of a random hydrologic event

a) once in 20 successive years

where i = maximum intensity (cm/h)

where P = mean of annual maximum rainfall series

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