Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
Rashadul Kabir
North South University
Spring 2019
Basic functional units of a computer
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How a computer functions (at present)
A list of instructions that performs a certain task is called a
program. A program is stored in memory.
The processor fetches the instructions that make up the
program from the memory, one after the other, and
performs the desired operations.
The computer is controlled by the stored program and
external interruption by an operator or by connected I/O
devices.
A computer can only understand binary data. However, we
use different alphanumeric data to express ourselves.
These alphanumeric data are coded using ASCII (American
Standard Code for Information Interchange) scheme into
binary data to be stored or processed by the computer,
where each character is represented as a 7-bit code.
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Flow of a Program
High-level language program
Level of abstraction closer
to problem domain
Provides for productivity
and portability
instructions
data
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Below Your Program
Application software
Written in high-level language
System software
Compiler: translates HLL code to
assembly language code
Operating System
Handles input/output
Manages memory and storage
Schedules tasks & sharing resources
Hardware
Processor, memory, I/O controllers
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Classes of Computers
Desktop computers
General purpose, variety of software
Subject to cost/performance tradeoff
Server computers
Network based
High capacity, performance, reliability
Range from small servers to building sized
Supercomputers
High-end scientific and engineering calculations
Highest capability but represent a small fraction of the overall
computer market
Embedded computers
Hidden as components of systems
Stringent power/performance/cost constraints
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The PostPC Era
Personal Mobile Device (PMD)
Battery operated
Connects to the Internet
Hundreds of dollars
Smart phones, tablets, electronic glasses
Cloud computing
Warehouse Scale Computers (WSC)
Software as a Service (SaaS)
Portion of software run on a PMD and a portion run in the
Cloud
Examples: Amazon and Google
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Important Definitions
Computer Organization is concerned with the way
hardware components operate and the way in which
they are connected together to form a computer system.
Computer Design is concerned with hardware design of
the computer. It is concerned with the determination of
what hardware should be used and the parts should be
connected.
Computer Architecture is a set of rules and methods that
describe the functionality, organization, and
implementation of computer systems. It includes the
instruction formats, the instruction set, memory
addressing techniques, microarchitecture and the overall
system design.
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A Quote from Frank Lloyd Wright
“architecture […] based upon principle, and not upon
precedent”
Problem
Algorithm
focus of Computer
Organization & Program/Language
Architecture Runtime System RISC ISA
(VM or OS)
ISA (Architecture)
Microarchitecture CISC ISA
Logic
Circuits
Electrons
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Understanding Performance
Algorithm
Determines number of operations executed
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Eight Great Ideas
Design for Moore’s Law : IC resources double every 18 – 24 months.
Hierarchy of memories
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Evolution of Computers
In the 300 years before the mid-1900s, a series of
increasingly complex mechanical devices, constructed from
gear wheels, levers, and pulleys were used to perform the
basic operations of addition, subtraction, multiplication and
division.
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Evolution of Computers
Computers as we know them today have been developed over
the past 60 years.
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Fig: Vacuum tube vs. transistor
Fig: ENIAC
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Evolution of Computers
Development of technologies used to fabricate processors,
memories and I/O units of computers has been divided into
four generations:
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First generation (1945 -1955)
The key concept of a stored program was introduced by John
von Neumann. Programs and their data were located in the
same memory, as they are today.
Harvard architecture was another kind of architecture where
programs and their data were located on different memory
systems.
Assembly language was used to prepare programs and was
translated into machine language for execution.
Basic arithmetic operations were performed in a few
milliseconds using vacuum tube technology to implement logic
functions.
This provided a 100 to 1000 times increase in speed to earlier
mechanical and relay-based electromechanical technology.
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Von Neumann Architecture
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Second generation (1955 – 1965)
Transistor was invented at AT&T Bell Laboratories in the late
1940s and quickly replaced the vacuum tube. This marked the
start of the second generation of computers.
High-level languages such as Fortran, were developed,
making the preparation of a application programs much
easier.
System programs called compilers were developed to
translate these high-level language programs into a
corresponding assembly language programs, which was
translated into executable machine language form.
Separate I/O processors were developed that could operate in
parallel with the central processor that executed programs,
thus improving overall performance.
During this time, IBM was a major computer manufacturer.
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Third generation (1965 – 1975)
The ability to fabricate many transistors on a single silicon
chip, called integrated-circuit technology enabled lower-cost
and faster processors and memory elements to be built.
Integrated-circuit memories began to replace magnetic core
memories. This technological development marked the
beginning of the third generation of computers.
Other developments included the introduction of
microprogramming, parallelism and pipelining.
Operating system software allowed efficient sharing of a
computer system by several user programs.
Cache and virtual memory were developed.
System 360 mainframe computers (from IBM) and PDP
minicomputers (from Digital Equipment Corporation) were
dominant commercial products.
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Fourth generation (1975 – present)
In the early 1970s, integrated-circuit fabrication techniques
had evolved to the point where complete processors and
large sections of the main memory of small computers
could be implemented on single chips.
Tens of thousands of transistors could be placed on a single
chip – Very Large Scale Integration (VLSI).
Companies such as Intel, National Semiconductor,
Motorola, Texas Instruments and Advanced Micro Devices
(AMD) were the driving forces of this technology.
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Manufacturing of ICs
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Suggested reading
Section 1.1, Computer System Architecture (Third Edition) –
M. Morris Mano
Chapter 1, Computer Organization and Design (Fifth
Edition) - D. A. Patterson and J. L. Hennesey
Sections 1.2 and 1.8, Computer Organization (Fifth edition)
– Carl Hamacher, Zvonko Vranesic and Safwat Zaky
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Von_Neumann_architecture
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harvard_architecture
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Thank you!
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