THE CENTRAL DOGMA OF

MOLECULAR BIOLOGY

DNA Encodes RNA,

RNA Encodes Protein
 CENTRAL DOGMA

 Describes the flow of genetic information in cells from DNA to

messenger RNA (mRNA) to protein.
 It states that genes specify the sequence of mRNA molecules, which in
turn specify the sequence of proteins. Because the information stored
in DNA is so central to cellular function, the cell keeps the DNA
protected and copies it in the form of RNA. An enzyme adds one
nucleotide to the mRNA strand for every nucleotide it reads in the DNA
strand. The translation of this information to a protein is more complex
because three mRNA nucleotides correspond to one amino acid in the
polypeptide sequence.
DNA Anatomy
 REPLICATION

 genetic information in the DNA must be replicated

before a given cell divides, so that the daughter cells
both contain the same genetic information. Here,
DNA separates and an enzyme, DNA polymerase,
makes complimentary copies of each strand. The
two resulting dsDNA strands separate to different
daughter cells during division.
 The process where DNA is replicated when cells
divide, and is transcribed into RNA which is
translated into protein is called the Central Dogma
of Biology.
REPLICATION
 TRANSCRIPTION

 Actual information in DNA of chromosomes is decoded

through the formation of another nucleic acid, ribonucleic
acid or RNA.
 Is the process by which DNA is copied (transcribed) to
mRNA, which carries the information needed for protein
synthesis.
 Transcription takes place in two broad steps:
 First, pre-messenger RNA is formed, with the involvement of RNA
polymerase enzymes.
 The pre-messenger RNA is then "edited" to produce the desired
mRNA molecule in a process called RNA splicing.
TRANSCRIPTION
 TRANSLATION

 DNA information in linear RNA sequence form is

decoded in a process called translation, to form a
protein, another biological polymer. The monomer in a
protein is called an amino acid, a completely different
kind of molecule than a nucleotide.
 This is the process that takes the information passed
from DNA as messenger RNA and turns it into a series of
amino acids bound together with peptide bonds. It is
essentially a translation from one code (nucleotide
sequence) to another code (amino acid sequence).
 THE STEPS IN TRANSLATION ARE

 The ribosome binds to mRNA at a specific area.

 The ribosome starts matching tRNA anticodon sequences
to the mRNA codon sequence.
 Each time a new tRNA comes into the ribosome, the amino
acid that it was carrying gets added to the elongating
polypeptide chain.
 The ribosome continues until it hits a stop sequence, then it
releases the polypeptide and the mRNA.
 The polypeptide forms into its native shape and starts
acting as a functional protein in the cell.
 Types of RNA

 mRNA - messenger RNA is a copy of a gene. It acts as a photocopy of

a gene by having a sequence complementary to one strand of the DNA
and identical to the other strand. The mRNA acts as a busboy to carry
the information stored in the DNA in the nucleus to the cytoplasm
where the ribosomes can make it into protein.
 tRNA - transfer RNA is a small RNA that has a very specific secondary
and tertiary structure such that it can bind an amino acid at one end,
and mRNA at the other end. It acts as an adaptor to carry the amino
acid elements of a protein to the appropriate place as coded for by the
mRNA.
 rRNA - ribosomal RNA is one of the structural components of the
ribosome. Its sequence is the compliment of regions in the mRNA so
that the ribosome can match with and bind to an mRNA it will make a
protein from.
GENETIC CODE
 PROTEINS

 In contrast to the linear polymers of DNA and RNA, proteins (linear

polymers of amino acids) fold in 3D space to form structures of unique

shapes.

 there are about 30,000 proteins of different shapes in humans.

 Not only do proteins have unique shapes, but they also have unique nooks

and crannies and pockets which allow them to bind other molecules.

 Some common motifs are found within the 3D structure of the protein. The

include alpha helices and beta sheets. These are held together by H-
bonds between the slightly positive H on the N in the protein backbone and
a slightly negative O further away on the protein backbone
 MUTATIONS

 If the DNA sequence in a coding region becomes changed, the

resulting mRNA will also be changed, which will lead to changes
in the protein sequence. These changes might have no effect
and be silent, if the change in the protein does not affect the
folding of the protein or its binding to another important
molecule. However, if the changes affect either the folding or
the binding region, the protein may not be able to perform its
usual function.
 Mutations which substitute nonpolar amino acids for
polar/charged ones (or the reverse) have the greatest chance of
causing significant changes in structure and/or activity.
MUTATIONS
 WHAT CAUSES MUTATIONS?

EXTERNAL FACTORS:
 Chemicals
 Radiation

INTERNAL FACTORS
 DNA Replication
 TYPES OF GENE MUTATIONS

 Substitution
This is a mutation that exchanges one base for
another .
 Such a substitution could:
 Change a codon to one that encodes a different amino acid and
cause a small change in the protein produced. For
example, sickle cell anemia is caused by a substitution in the
beta-hemoglobin gene, which alters a single amino acid in the
protein produced.
 Change a codon to one that encodes the same amino acid and
causes no change in the protein produced. These are called silent
mutations.
 Change an amino-acid-coding codon to a single "stop" codon and
cause an incomplete protein. This can have serious effects since
the incomplete protein probably won't function.
SUBSTITUTION MUTATION
 TYPES OF GENE MUTATIONS

 Insertion
Insertions are mutations in which extra base pairs
are inserted into a new place in the DNA. As a result,
the protein made by the gene may not function
properly.
INSERTION MUTATION
 TYPES OF GENE MUTATIONS

 Deletion
This changes the number of DNA bases in a gene by
adding a piece of DNA. As a result, the protein made
by the gene may not function properly.
DELETION MUTATION
 TYPES OF GENE MUTATIONS

 Frameshift
 This type of mutation occurs when the addition or loss of DNA
bases changes a gene's reading frame. A reading frame
consists of groups of 3 bases that each code for one amino
acid.
 This shifts the grouping of these bases and changes the code
for amino acids. The resulting protein is usually nonfunctional.
 Here, a similar error occurs at the DNA level, causing the
codons to be parsed incorrectly.
FRAMESHIFT MUTATION
 TYPES OF GENE MUTATIONS

 Repeat expansion
 Nucleotide repeats are short DNA sequences that are
repeated a number of times in a row. For example, a
trinucleotide repeat is made up of 3-base-pair sequences, and
a tetranucleotide repeat is made up of 4-base-pair sequences.
 A repeat expansion is a mutation that increases the number of
times that the short DNA sequence is repeated. This type of
mutation can cause the resulting protein to function improperly.
REPEAT EXPANSION MUTATION
 TYPES OF GENE MUTATIONS

 Missense mutation
 This type of mutation is a change in one DNA base pair that
results in the substitution of one amino acid for another in the
protein made by a gene.
MISSENSE MUTATION
 TYPES OF GENE MUTATIONS

 Nonsense mutation
 This also a change in one DNA base pair. Instead of
substituting one amino acid for another, however, the altered
DNA sequence prematurely signals the cell to stop building a
protein. This type of mutation results in a shortened protein
that may function improperly or not at all.
NONSENSE MUTATION
 TYPES OF GENE MUTATIONS

 Duplication
 This consists of a piece of DNA that is abnormally copied one
or more times. This type of mutation may alter the function of
the resulting protein.
DUPLICATION MUTATION