Fundamentals of

Distance Protection

GE Multilin
Outline
• Transmission line introduction
• What is distance protection?
• Non-pilot and pilot schemes
• Redundancy considerations
• Security for dual-breaker
terminals
• Out-of-step relaying
• Single-pole tripping
• Series-compensated lines
2/
GE /
March 17, 2019
Transmission Lines
A Vital Part of the Power System:
• Provide path to transfer power between generation
and load
• Operate at voltage levels from 69kV to 765kV
• Deregulated markets, economic, environmental
requirements have pushed utilities to operate
transmission lines close to their limits.

3/
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March 17, 2019
Transmission Lines

Classification of line length depends on:

 Source-to-line Impedance Ratio (SIR),
and
 Nominal voltage
Length considerations:
 Short Lines: SIR > 4
 Medium Lines: 0.5 < SIR < 4
 Long Lines: SIR < 0.5

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March 17, 2019
Typical Protection Schemes
Short Lines

• Current differential
• Phase comparison
• Permissive Overreach Transfer Trip
(POTT)
• Directional Comparison Blocking (DCB)

5/
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March 17, 2019
Typical Protection Schemes
Medium Lines

• Phase comparison
• Directional Comparison Blocking (DCB)
• Permissive Underreach Transfer Trip (PUTT)
• Permissive Overreach Transfer Trip (POTT)
• Unblocking
• Step Distance
• Step or coordinated overcurrent
• Inverse time overcurrent
• Current Differential
6/
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March 17, 2019
Typical Protection Schemes
Long Lines

• Phase comparison
• Directional Comparison Blocking (DCB)
• Permissive Underreach Transfer Trip (PUTT)
• Permissive Overreach Transfer Trip (POTT)
• Unblocking
• Step Distance
• Step or coordinated overcurrent
• Current Differential
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March 17, 2019
What is distance protection?

Intended
REACH point

F1

Z I*Z
V=I*ZF
I*Z -
V

For internal faults:

RELAY (V,I) > IZ – V and V approximately
in phase (mho)
> IZ – V and IZ approximately
in phase (reactance)
8/
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March 17, 2019
What is distance protection?
F2
Intended
REACH point

Z I*Z
V=I*ZF
I*Z -
V

For external faults:

RELAY (V,I) > IZ – V and V approximately
out of phase (mho)
> IZ – V and IZ approximately
out of phase (reactance)
9/
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March 17, 2019
What is distance protection?

Intended
REACH point

RELAY

10 /
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March 17, 2019
Source Impedance Ratio,
Accuracy & Speed
Relay
Lin
System e

f LOC [ PU ]
Voltage at the relay: VR  VN
f LOC[ PU ]  SIR

Consider SIR = 0.1

Fault Voltag Voltage
location e (%) change (%)
75% 88.24 2.76
90% 90.00 0.91
100% 90.91 N/A
110% 91.67 0.76
11 /
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March 17, 2019
Source Impedance Ratio,
Accuracy & Speed
Relay
System
Lin
e f LOC [ PU ]
Voltage at the relay: VR  VN
f LOC[ PU ]  SIR

Consider SIR = 30
Fault Voltag Voltage
location e (%) change (%)
75% 2.4390 0.7868
90% 2.9126 0.3132
100% 3.2258 N/A
110% 3.5370 0.3112
12 /
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March 17, 2019
Challenges in relay design
> Transients: 30
– High frequency
20
– DC offset in currents steady-state
output
– CVT transients in voltages 10

voltage, V
0
High Voltage Line

C1 6 -10
3 5 CVT output
1
-20
C2
2
Secondary Voltage
-30
0 1 2 3 4
power cycles
Output

13 /
GE /
March 17, 2019
Challenges in relay design
> Transients: 60
– High frequency
40
– DC offset in currents steady-state
output
– CVT transients in voltages 20

voltage, V
0
High Voltage Line

C1 6 -20
CVT
3 5 output
1
-40
C2
2
Secondary Voltage
-60
0 1 2 3 4
power cycles
Output

14 /
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March 17, 2019
Challenges in relay design
100
vA vB vC 100
80

60

Reactance comparator [V]

40

20
50
Voltage [V]

-20 SPOL
-40

-60
0 Sorry… Future (unknown
-80

-100
-0.5 0 0.5 1 1.5
-50
5
iA
4

3
SOP
-100
2 -0.5 0 0.5 1 1.5
Current [A]

power cycles
1

0
iB, iC
>In-phase = internal fault
-1
>Out-of-phase = external fault
-2

-3
-0.5 0 0.5 1 1.5
15 /
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March 17, 2019
Transient Overreach

• Fault current generally contains dc

offset in addition to ac power frequency
component
• Ratio of dc to ac component of current
depends on instant in the cycle at which
fault occurred
• Rate of decay of dc offset depends on
system X/R
16 /
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March 17, 2019
Zone 1 and CVT Transients
Capacitive Voltage Transformers (CVTs) create
certain problems for fast distance relays applied to
systems with high Source Impedance Ratios (SIRs):
> CVT-induced transient voltage components may
assume large magnitudes (up to 30-40%) and
last for a comparatively long time (up to about 2
cycles)
> 60Hz voltage for faults at the relay reach point
may be as low as 3% for a SIR of 30
> the signal may be buried under noise

17 /
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March 17, 2019
Zone 1 and CVT Transients
CVT transients can cause distance relays to
overreach. Generally, transient overreach may be
caused by:
> overestimation of the current (the magnitude of
the current as measured is larger than its actual
value, and consequently, the fault appears closer
than it is actually located),
> underestimation of the voltage (the magnitude of
the voltage as measured is lower than its actual
value)
> combination of the above

18 /
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March 17, 2019
stance Element Fundamentals

Z1 End Zone

XL

XC
 15
15
34
34 42
42 44
44
Actual
ActualFault
Fault
Location
Location
10
10
dynamic
dynamicmho mho
zone extended
zone extended Line
forforhigh Line
30
30
highSIRs
SIRs Impedance
Impedance
5
[ohm]

5
Reactance[ohm]
Reactance

18
18 Trajectory
Trajectory
22
22 (msec)
(msec)
0
0

26
26

-5
-5 -10
-10
-5
-5
0
Resistance [ohm]
0 Impedance
5
Impedance
5 locus
10
locus
10 may
maypass
pass
Resistance [ohm]
below
belowthe theorigin
originof ofthe
theZ-plane
Z-plane--
this
thiswould
wouldcall
callfor
foraatime
timedelay
delay
to
toobtain
obtainstability
stability
20 /
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March 17, 2019
CVT Transient Overreach
Solutions
>apply delay (fixed or adaptable)
>reduce the reach
>adaptive techniques and better filtering
algorithms

21 /
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March 17, 2019
CVT Transients – Adaptive
Solution
> Optimize signal filtering:
– currents - max 3% error due to the dc
component
– voltages - max 0.6% error due to CVT transients
> Adaptive double-reach approach
– filtering alone ensures maximum transient
overreach at the level of 1% (for SIRs up to 5)
and 20% (for SIRs up to 30)
– to reduce the transient overreach even further
an adaptive double-reach zone 1 has been
implemented

22 /
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March 17, 2019
CVT Transients – Adaptive
Solution
The outer zone 1:
> is fixed at the actual reach
> applies certain security delay to cope with CVT
transients
X
The inner zone 1:
> has its reach Delayed
Trip
dynamically controlled
by the voltage
magnitude
> is instantaneous
Instantaneous
Trip

23 /
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March 17, 2019
Desirable Distance Relay
Attributes
Filters:
> Prefiltering of currents to remove dc decaying
transients
– Limit maximum transient overshoot (below 2%)
> Prefiltering of voltages to remove low frequency
transients caused by CVTs
– Limit transient overreach to less than 5% for an
SIR of 30
> Accurate and fast frequency tracking algorithm
> Adaptive reach control for faults at reach points

24 /
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March 17, 2019
Distance Relay Operating
Times

25 /
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March 17, 2019
Distance Relay Operating
Times
35ms
25ms 30ms
20ms

15ms

26 /
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March 17, 2019
Distance Relay Operating
Times
SLG faults LL faults

3P faults

27 /
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March 17, 2019
 Actual
Actualmaximum
maximumreach
reachcurves
curves
100
100
Relay 4
90
90

80
80 Relay 3
70
70
[%]
Rach[%]

60
60
MaximumRach

50
50
Maximum

40
40
Relay 2
30
30

20
20
Relay 1
10
10

00
00 55 10
10 15
15 20
20 25
25 30
30
SIR
SIR

28 /
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March 17, 2019
Maximum Torque Angle

• Angle at which mho element has

maximum reach
• Characteristics with smaller MTA will
accommodate larger amount of arc
resistance

29 /
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March 17, 2019
 Mho Characteristics
Traditional

Directional
angle
“slammed”

Directional
angle lowered
and
“slammed”
Both MHO and
directional
angles
“slammed”
(lens)

30 /
GE /
March 17, 2019
Load Swings

+XL

+ = LOOKING INTO
LINE normally
considered forward
h
Reac

Load
Trajectory
Operate No Operate
area
area
Typical load
characteristic
impedance
+R
31 /
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March 17, 2019
Load Swings

“Lenticular”
Characterist
ic

Load swing

32 /
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March 17, 2019
Load Encroachment
Characteristic

The load encroachment element responds to

positive sequence voltage and current and can
be used to block phase distance and phase 33 /
overcurrent elements. GE /
March 17, 2019
Blinders

• Blinders limit the operation of distance

relays (quad or mho) to a narrow region
that parallels and encompasses the
protected line
• Applied to long transmission lines,
where mho settings are large enough to
pick up on maximum load or minor
system swings
34 /
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March 17, 2019
Quadrilateral Characteristics

35 /
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March 17, 2019
Quadrilateral Characteristics

Ground Resistance
(Conductor falls on ground)

R Resultant impedance outside of

the mho operating region
XL

36 /
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March 17, 2019
Distance Characteristics -
Summary
Mho Lenticula Quadrilat
JX r eral

R
Standard for Used for phase Better coverage
phase elements elements with long for ground faults
heavily loaded lines due to
heavily loaded resistance
added to return
path

37 /
GE /
March 17, 2019
Distance Element
Polarization
The following polarization quantities are
commonly used in distance relays for
determining directionality:
• Self-polarized
• Memory voltage
• Positive sequence voltage
• Quadrature voltage
• Leading phase voltage

38 /
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March 17, 2019
Memory Polarization
> Positive-sequence memorized voltage is used for
polarizing:
– Mho comparator (dynamic, expanding Mho)
– Negative-sequence directional comparator (Ground
Distance Mho and Quad)
– Zero-sequence directional comparator (Ground
Distance MHO and QUAD)
– Directional comparator (Phase Distance MHO and
QUAD)
> Memory duration is a common distance settings (all
zones, phase and ground, MHO and QUAD)

39 /
GE /
March 17, 2019
Memory Polarization
jX Static MHO characteristic (memory not
established or expired)
ZL
Dynamic MHO characteristic for a reverse fa

Dynamic MHO characteristic for a forward f

Impedance During Close-up Faults

ZS

40 /
GE /
March 17, 2019
Memory Polarization
jX Static MHO characteristic (memory not
established or expired)
ZL

Dynamic MHO characteristic for a forward fa

RL

ZS

Memory Polarization…Improved Resistive 41 /

GE /

Coverage March 17, 2019

Choice of Polarization

• In order to provide flexibility modern

distance relays offer a choice with
respect to polarization of ground
overcurrent direction functions:
– Voltage polarization
– Current polarization
– Dual polarization

42 /
GE /
March 17, 2019
Ground Directional Elements
> Pilot-aided schemes using ground mho distance relays
have inherently limited fault resistance coverage
> Ground directional over current protection using either
negative or zero sequence can be a useful supplement to
give more coverage for high resistance faults
> Directional discrimination based on the ground quantities
is fast:
– Accurate angular relations between the zero and
negative sequence quantities establish very quickly
because:
 During faults zero and negative-sequence currents
and voltages build up from very low values
(practically from zero)
 The pre-fault values do not bias the developing
fault components in any direction
43 /
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March 17, 2019
Distance Schemes

Pilot Aided Non-Pilot Aided

Schemes Schemes
(Step Distance)

Communication No Communication
between Distance between Distance
relays Relays

44 /
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March 17, 2019
Step Distance Schemes
• Zone 1:
– Trips with no intentional time delay
– Underreaches to avoid unnecessary operation for faults beyond
remote terminal
– Typical reach setting range 80-90% of Z L
• Zone 2:
– Set to protect remainder of line
– Overreaches into adjacent line/equipment
– Minimum reach setting 120% of ZL
– Typically time delayed by 15-30 cycles
• Zone 3:
– Remote backup for relay/station failures at remote terminal
– Reaches beyond Z2, load encroachment a consideration

45 /
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March 17, 2019
Step Distance Schemes
Local
Z1
BU

BU
S

S
Z1
Remot
e
46 /
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March 17, 2019
Step Distance Schemes
Local
Z1 End
Zone
BU

BU
S

S
End Z1
Zone Remot
e
47 /
GE /
March 17, 2019
Step Distance Schemes
Local
Z1
Breake
r
Trippe
d
BU

BU
S

S
Breake
r Z1
Closed
Remot
e
48 /
GE /
March 17, 2019
Step Distance Schemes
Local
Z2 (time
delayed)
Z1
BU

BU
S

S
Z1

Z2 (time
delayed)
49 /
Remot GE /
March 17, 2019
Step Distance Schemes
Z3 (remote …
backup)
Z2 (time
delayed)
Z1
BU

BU
S

S
50 /
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March 17, 2019
Step Distance Protection

51 /
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March 17, 2019
Distance Relay Coordination
Over Lap

Local Relay – Z2

Remote Relay – Z4

Local Relay Remote Relay

Zone 2 PKP Zone 4 PKP

52 /
GE /
March 17, 2019
eed For Pilot Aided Schemes

BU

BU
S

S
Local Remote
Relay Relay

Communication
Channel

53 /
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March 17, 2019
Pilot Communications
Channels
• Distance-based pilot schemes traditionally utilize
simple on/off communications between relays, but can
also utilize peer-to-peer communications and GOOSE
messaging over digital channels
• Typical communications media include:
– Pilot-wire (50Hz, 60Hz, AT)
– Power line carrier
– Microwave
– Radio
– Optic fiber (directly connected or multiplexed
channels)

54 /
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March 17, 2019
Distance-based Pilot
Protection

55 /
GE /
March 17, 2019
lot-Aided Distance-Based Schemes

 DUTT – Direct Under-reaching Transfer

Trip
 PUTT – Permissive Under-reaching
Transfer Trip
 POTT – Permissive Over-reaching
Transfer Trip
 Hybrid POTT – Hybrid Permissive Over-
reaching Transfer Trip
 DCB – Directional Comparison Blocking
Scheme
 DCUB – Directional Comparison 56 /

Unblocking Scheme GE /
March 17, 2019
Direct Underreaching
Transfer Trip (DUTT)
• Requires only underreaching (RU) functions which
overlap in reach (Zone 1).
•Applied with FSK channel
– GUARD frequency transmitted during normal
conditions
– TRIP frequency when one RU function operates
• Scheme does not provide tripping for faults
beyond RU reach if remote breaker is open or
channel is inoperative.
• Dual pilot channels improve security

57 /
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March 17, 2019
DUTT Scheme

Zone 1

Bus Bus
Line

Zone 1

58 /
GE /
March 17, 2019
Permissive Underreaching
Transfer Trip (PUTT)
• Requires both under (RU) and
overreaching (RO) functions
• Identical to DUTT, with pilot tripping
signal supervised by RO (Zone 2)

59 /
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March 17, 2019
PUTT Scheme
Zone 2

Zone 1
To protect end of
line
Bus Bus
Line

Zone 1

Zone 2

Rx PKP
Local Trip
Zone 2
&
OR
Zone 1
60 /
GE /
March 17, 2019
Permissive Overreaching
Transfer Trip (POTT)
• Requires overreaching (RO) functions (Zone
2).
• Applied with FSK channel:
– GUARD frequency sent in stand-by
– TRIP frequency when one RO function
operates
• No trip for external faults if pilot channel is
inoperative
• Time-delayed tripping can be provided
61 /
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March 17, 2019
POTT Scheme
Zone 2

Zone 1

Bus Bus
Line

Zone 1

Zone 2

(Z1) Tx

Zone 1

Trip
(Z1) Rx OR Line
AND Breakers

Zone 2 t
o
62 /
GE /
March 17, 2019
POTT Scheme
POTT – Permissive Over-reaching
Transfer Trip
End
Zone
BU

BU
S

S
63 /
Communication GE /

Channel March 17, 2019

POTT Scheme
Local Local
Relay FWD Remote
IGND Relay
Local Relay – Z2 FWD IGND

Remote Relay – Z2

Communicat
TRIP ion Channel

POTT RX POTT TX

Local ZONE 2 Remote

Relay 2 PKP PKP Relay
ZONE
OR
OR
Ground Dir OC Ground Dir OC Fwd 64 /
GE /

Fwd March 17, 2019

POTT Scheme

Communications
POTT RX 1 POTT TX 1 A to G

Channel(s)
POTT RX 2 POTT TX 2 B to G

POTT RX 3 POTT TX 3 C to G

POTT RX 4 POTT TX 4 Multi Phase

Local Relay Remote Relay

65 /
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March 17, 2019
POTT Scheme
Current reversal example
TRIP

Local Relay Remote Relay

Timer
Start Communication
Timer
Expire Channel

GND
GNDDIR
DIROC
OCFWD
REV POTT RX POTT TX ZONE
GND 2 OC
DIR ORREV
GND DIR OC FWD
66 /
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March 17, 2019
POTT Scheme
Echo example
Remote FWD
IGND
Open

Remote – Z2

OPEN Communication
Channel
TRIP

POTT RX POTT TX

Local Relay POTT TX POTT RX Remote Relay

Communication
Channel 67 /
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March 17, 2019
Hybrid POTT

• Intended for three-terminal lines and

weak infeed conditions
• Echo feature adds security during weak
infeed conditions
• Reverse-looking distance and oc
elements used to identify external faults

68 /
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March 17, 2019
Hybrid POTT
Zone 2

Zone 1
Remote Local
Weak
Bus Bus system
Line

Zone 1 Zone 4

Zone 2

69 /
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March 17, 2019
Directional Comparison
Blocking (DCB)
• Requires overreaching (RO) tripping and blocking
(B) functions
• ON/OFF pilot channel typically used (i.e., PLC)
– Transmitter is keyed to ON state when
blocking function(s) operate
– Receipt of signal from remote end blocks
tripping relays
• Tripping function set with Zone 2 reach or greater
• Blocking functions include Zone 3 reverse and
low-set ground overcurrent elements

70 /
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March 17, 2019
DCB Scheme
Zone 2

Zone 1
Remote Local

Bus Bus
Line

Zone 1

Zone 2

71 /
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March 17, 2019
Directional Comparison
Blocking (DCB)

BUS End Zone

BUS
72 /
Communication Channel GE /
March 17, 2019
Directional Comparison
Blocking (DCB)
Internal FaultsLocal Relay – Z2

FWD IGND

TRIP
TRIP Timer
Start
Expired
Zone 2 PKP
NO Dir Block RX
OR
Local Relay GND DIR OC Fwd Remote Relay
73 /
GE /
March 17, 2019
Directional Comparison
Blocking (DCB)
External FaultsLocal Relay – Z2

FWD IGND
Remote Relay – Z4

TRIP Timer REV IGND

Start No TRIP
Dir Block RX DIR BLOCK TX
Local Relay Remote Relay
Zone 2 PKP Communication Zone 4 PKP
Channel
OR OR

GND DIR OC Fwd GND DIR OC Rev 74 /

GE /
March 17, 2019
Directional Comparison
Unblocking (DCUB)
• Applied to Permissive Overreaching (POR)
schemes to overcome the possibility of carrier signal
attenuation or loss as a result of the fault
• Unblocking provided in the receiver when signal is
lost:
– If signal is lost due to fault, at least one
permissive RO functions will be picked up
– Unblocking logic produces short-duration TRIP
signal (150-300 ms). If RO function not picked
up, channel lockout occurs until GUARD signal
returns
75 /
GE /
March 17, 2019
DCUB Scheme

Forward

Bus Bus
Line

Forward

Trip
(Un-Block) Tx1 Line
Breakers

(Block) Tx2

Forward

(Block) Rx2 AND

AND
AND t
o
AND
(Un-Block) Rx1

76 /
Lockout GE /
March 17, 2019
Directional Comparison
Unblocking (DCUB)

BUS End Zone

BUS
77 /
Communication Channel GE /
March 17, 2019
 Directional Comparison
Unblocking (DCUB)
Normal conditions

Load Current

FSK Carrier FSK Carrier

GUARD1 RX GUARD1 TX
Local Relay Remote Relay
NO Loss of Guard GUARD2 TX GUARD2 RX NO Loss of Guard
NO Permission NO Permission
Communication
Channel 78 /
GE /
March 17, 2019
 Directional Comparison
Unblocking (DCUB)
Normal conditions, channel failure

Load Current

Loss of Channel
FSK Carrier FSK Carrier

GUARD1
NO RX RX GUARD1 TX
Local Relay Remote Relay
Loss of Guard GUARD2 TX GUARD2
NO RX RX Loss of Guard
Block Timer Started
Expired Block Timer Expired
Started
Communication
Block DCUB Channel Block DCUB 79 /
until Guard OK until Guard OK GE /
March 17, 2019
Directional Comparison
Unblocking (DCUB)
Internal fault, healthy
Local Relay – channel
Z2

Remote Relay – Z2

TRIP TRIP Z1
FSK Carrier FSK Carrier

GUARD1
TRIP1 RXRX GUARD1
TRIP1 TX
TX
Local Relay Remote Relay
Zone 2 PKP ZONE 2 PKP
GUARD2
TRIP2 TX TX GUARD2
TRIP2 RXRX

Loss of Guard
Communication 80 /
Permission
Channel GE /
March 17, 2019
 Directional Comparison
Unblocking (DCUB)
Internal fault, channel failure
Local Relay – Z2

Remote Relay – Z2

Loss of Channel
TRIP TRIP Z1
FSK Carrier FSK Carrier

GUARD1
NO RX RX GUARD1
TRIP1 TX
TX
Local Relay Remote Relay
Zone 2 PKP ZONE 2 PKP
GUARD2
TRIP2 TX TX GUARD2
NO RX RX
Loss of Guard Loss of Guard
Block Timer Started Communication 81 /
Duration Timer Started
Expired Channel GE /
March 17, 2019
Redundancy Considerations
• Redundant protection systems increase dependability of
the system:
 Multiple sets of protection using same protection
principle and multiple pilot channels overcome individual
element failure, or
 Multiple sets of protection using different protection
principles and multiple channels protects against failure
of one of the protection methods.
• Security can be improved using “voting” schemes (i.e., 2-
out-of-3), potentially at expense of dependability.
• Redundancy of instrument transformers, battery systems,
trip coil circuits, etc. also need to be considered.

82 /
GE /
March 17, 2019
edundant Communications
End Zone

BUS

BUS
AND Channels: OR Channels:
POTT Less Reliable POTT More Reliable
Communication Channel 1
DCB Less Secure DCB More Secure
Communication Channel 2
More Channel Security More Channel Dependability

Loss of Channel 2 83 /
GE /
March 17, 2019
Redundant Pilot Schemes

84 /
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March 17, 2019
Pilot Relay Desirable
Attributes
• Integrated functions:
weak infeed
echo
line pick-up (SOTF)
• Basic protection elements used to key the
communication:
distance elements
fast and sensitive ground (zero and
negative sequence) directional IOCs with
current, voltage, and/or dual polarization

85 /
GE /
March 17, 2019
Pilot Relay Desirable
Attributes
Pre-programmed distance-based pilot schemes:
 Direct Under-reaching Transfer Trip (DUTT)
 Permissive Under-reaching Transfer Trip (PUTT)
 Permissive Overreaching Transfer Trip (POTT)
 Hybrid Permissive Overreaching Transfer Trip (HYB
POTT)
 Blocking scheme (DCB)
 Unblocking scheme (DCUB)

86 /
GE /
March 17, 2019
Security for dual-breaker
terminals
• Breaker-and-a-half and ring bus terminals are
common designs for transmission lines.
• Standard practice has been to:
– sum currents from each circuit breaker
externally by paralleling the CTs
– use external sum as the line current for
protective relays
• For some close-in external fault events, poor
CT performance may lead to improper operation
of line relays.

87 /
GE /
March 17, 2019
Security for dual-breaker
terminals

Accurate CTs preserve the

reverse current direction
under weak remote infeed

88 /
GE /
March 17, 2019
Security for dual-breaker
terminals

Saturation of CT1 may

invert the line current as
measured from
externally summated
CTs

89 /
GE /
March 17, 2019
Security for dual-breaker
terminals • Direct measurement of
currents from both circuit
breakers allows the use of
supervisory logic to prevent
distance and directional
overcurrent elements from
operating incorrectly due to
CT errors during reverse
faults.
• Additional benefits of direct
measurement of currents:
 independent BF
protection for each circuit
breaker
90 /
 independent GE /
March 17, 2019
Security for dual-breaker
terminals
Supervisory logic should:
– not affect speed or sensitivity of protection elements
– correctly allow tripping during evolving external-to-
internal fault conditions
– determine direction of current flow through each
breaker independently:
• Both currents in FWD direction  internal fault
• One current FWD, one current REV  external fault
– allow tripping during all forward/internal faults
– block tripping during all reverse/external faults
– initially block tripping during evolving external-to-
internal faults until second fault appears in forward
direction. Block is then lifted to permit tripping.

91 /
GE /
March 17, 2019
Single-pole Tripping

• Distance relay must correctly identify a

SLG fault and trip only the circuit breaker
pole for the faulted phase.
• Autoreclosing and breaker failure functions
must be initiated correctly on the fault event
• Security must be maintained on the
healthy phases during the open pole
condition and any reclosing attempt.

92 /
GE /
March 17, 2019
Out-of-Step Condition

• For certain operating conditions, a

severe system disturbance can cause
system instability and result in loss of
synchronism between different
generating units on an interconnected
system.

93 /
GE /
March 17, 2019
Out-of-Step Relaying
Out-of-step blocking relays
– Operate in conjunction with mho tripping relays to
prevent a terminal from tripping during severe
system swings & out-of-step conditions.
– Prevent system from separating in an indiscriminate
manner.
Out-of-step tripping relays
– Operate independently of other devices to detect out-
of-step condition during the first pole slip.
– Initiate tripping of breakers that separate system in
order to balance load with available generation on
any isolated part of the system.

94 /
GE /
March 17, 2019
Out-of-Step Tripping The locus must
When the inner stay for some
characteristic is time between the
entered the outer and middle
element is ready characteristics
to trip

Must move and

stay between the
middle and inner
95 /
characteristics GE /
March 17, 2019
Power Swing Blocking
Applications:
> Establish a blocking signal for stable power swings
(Power Swing Blocking)
> Establish a tripping signal for unstable power swings
(Out-of-Step Tripping)
Responds to:
> Positive-sequence voltage and current

96 /
GE /
March 17, 2019
Series-compensated lines
Benefits of series capacitors:
• Reduction of overall XL of long lines
• Improvement of stability margins
• Ability to adjust line load levels
• Loss reduction
• Reduction of voltage drop during severe
disturbances
• Normally economical for line lengths > 200 miles
Xs SC XL Infinte
E
Bus

97 /
GE /
March 17, 2019
Series-compensated lines
SCs create unfavorable conditions for protective
relays and fault locators:
• Overreaching of distance elements
• Failure of distance element to pick up on low-
current faults
• Phase selection problems in single-pole tripping
applications
• Large fault location errors
Xs SC XL Infinte
E
Bus

98 /
GE /
March 17, 2019
Series-compensated lines
Series Capacitor with MOV

99 /
GE /
March 17, 2019
Series-compensated lines

100 /
GE /
March 17, 2019
Series-compensated lines
Dynamic Reach Control

101 /
GE /
March 17, 2019
Series-compensated lines
Dynamic Reach Control for External Faults

102 /
GE /
March 17, 2019
Series-compensated lines
Dynamic Reach Control for External Faults

103 /
GE /
March 17, 2019
Series-compensated lines
Dynamic Reach Control for Internal Faults

104 /
GE /
March 17, 2019
Distance Protection Looking
Through a Transformer
• Phase distance elements can be set to see
beyond any 3-phase power transformer
• CTs & VTs may be located independently on
different sides of the transformer
• Given distance zone is defined by VT location
(not CTs)
• Reach setting is in sec, and must take into
account location & ratios of VTs, CTs and
voltage ratio of the involved power transformer
105 /
GE /
March 17, 2019
Transformer Group
Compensation

Depending on location of VTs and CTs, distance relays

need to compensate for the phase shift and magnitude
change caused by the power transformer 106 /
GE /
March 17, 2019
Setting Rules
• Transformer positive sequence impedance must
be included in reach setting only if transformer lies
between VTs and intended reach point
• Currents require compensation only if transformer
located between CTs and intended reach point
• Voltages require compensation only if transformer
located between VTs and intended reach point
• Compensation set based on transformer
connection & vector group as seen from CTs/VTs
toward reach point

107 /
GE /
March 17, 2019
Distance Relay Desirable
Attributes
> Multiple reversible distance zones
> Individual per-zone, per-element characteristic:
– Dynamic voltage memory polarization
– Various characteristics, including mho, quad, lenticular
> Individual per-zone, per-element current supervision (FD)
> Multi-input phase comparator:
– additional ground directional supervision
– dynamic reactance supervision
> Transient overreach filtering/control
> Phase shift & magnitude compensation for distance
applications with power transformers

108 /
GE /
March 17, 2019
Distance Relay Desirable
Attributes
> For improved flexibility, it is desirable to have the
following parameters settable on a per zone basis:
– Zero-sequence compensation
– Mutual zero-sequence compensation
– Maximum torque angle
– Blinders
– Directional angle
– Comparator limit angles (for lenticular
characteristic)
– Overcurrent supervision

109 /
GE /
March 17, 2019
Distance Relay Desirable
Attributes
> Additional functions
– Overcurrent elements (phase, neutral, ground,
directional, negative sequence, etc.)
– Breaker failure
– Automatic reclosing (single & three-pole)
– Sync check
– Under/over voltage elements
> Special functions
– Power swing detection
– Load encroachment
– Pilot schemes

110 /
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March 17, 2019
 111 /
GE /
March 17, 2019