Chapter 7

Lecture
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 7.1: Introduction
• Human skeleton initially cartilages and fibrous membranes
• Hyaline cartilage is the most abundant cartilage
• By age 25 the skeleton is completely hardened
• 206 bones make up the adult skeleton (20% of body
mass)
• 80 bones of the axial skeleton
• 126 bones of the appendicular skeleton

2
 Bone Classification
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

• Bone Classification: (b)

• Long Bones
• Short Bones
• Sesamoid Bones
• Flat Bones
• Irregular Bones (c)
• Wormian Bones
(sutural)
(d)

3
(a) (e)
 Parts of a Long Bone
• Epiphysis Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Epiphyseal plates
• Distal Articular cartilage

• Proximal Spongy bone

Proximal
epiphysis

• Diaphysis Space containing

• Metaphysis red marrow

• Compact bone Endosteum

• Spongy bone
Compact bone

Medullary cavity

• Articular cartilage Yellow marrow

• Periosteum Periosteum Diaphysis

• Endosteum
• Medullary cavity
• Trabeculae
• Bone marrow
• Red marrow and yellow marrow

Distal
epiphysis
4
Femur
 Microscopic Structure

• Bone cells are called osteocytes

• in a lacuna
• Osteocytes transport nutrients and wastes by
cellular processes in canaliculi
• The extracellular matrix of bone is largely collagen
and inorganic salts
• Collagen gives bone resilience & strength
• Inorganic salts make bone hard

5
 Compact Bone
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

• Osteon Osteon

aka Haversian System Endosteum

Central canal
containing blood

• Central canal
vessels and nerves

• Perforating canal aka

Periosteum
Nerve

Volkmann’s canal Blood Pores

Central
vessels canal

• Osteocytes
Perforating
canal
Compact Nerve

• Lamellae
bone
Blood
vessels

• Lacunae Nerve

• Bone matrix Trabeculae

Bone matrix

• Canaliculi Canaliculus

Osteocyte

Lacuna
(space)

6
 Spongy Bone
• Spongy bone is aka cancellous bone
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Spongy
bone

Compact
bone

(a)
Remnant of Spongy bone Compact bone
epiphyseal plate
(b)

Spongy Compact
7
(c)
bone bone
a: © Ed Reschke; b,c: Courtesy of John W. Hole, Jr.
 7.3: Bone Development
and Growth
• Parts of the skeletal system begin to develop
during the first few weeks of prenatal development

• Bones replace existing connective tissue in one of

two ways:
• As intramembranous bones
• As endchondral bones

8
 Intramembranous Bones
• Intramembranous Bones
• These bones originate within sheetlike layers of
connective tissues
• They are the broad, flat bones
• Skull bones (except mandible)
• Are known as intramembranous bones

9
 Endochondral Bones

• Endochondral Bones
• Bones begin as hyaline cartilage
• Form models for future bones
• These are most bones of the skeleton
• Are known as endochondral bones

10
 Endochondral Ossification
• Hyaline cartilage model • Epiphyseal plate
• Primary ossification center • Osteoblasts vs. osteoclasts
• Secondary ossification centers
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Articular
Remnants of cartilage
Secondary epiphyseal
ossification plates
Cartilaginous Developing Compact bone center
model periosteum developing Spongy
bone
Epiphyseal
plates

Blood
Medullary Medullary Medullary
vessel
cavity cavity cavity
Compact
bone
Remnant of
Epiphyseal epiphyseal
Calcified Primary plate plate
cartilage ossification Secondary Spongy
center ossification bone
center Articular
cartilage
(a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) 11
 Growth at the Epiphyseal Plate
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

• First layer of cells Bone tissue

• Closest to the end of

of epiphysis

epiphysis 1 Zone of
resting

• Resting cells
cartilage

2 Zone of

• Anchors epiphyseal plate proliferating

cartilage

to epiphysis 3 Zone of
hypertrophic

• Zone of resting cartilage

cartilage

• Second layer of cells 4 Zone of

calcified

• Many rows of young

cartilage

Ossified
bone of
cells diaphysis

• Undergoing mitosis
• zone of proliferating
cartilage

(a) (b)
b: © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc./Al Telser, photographer
12
 Growth at the Epiphyseal Plate
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

• Third layer of cells Bone tissue

• Older cells of epiphysis

• Left behind when new 1 Zone of

resting
cells appear cartilage

2 Zone of
• Cells enlarging and proliferating
cartilage

becoming calcified 3 Zone of

hypertrophic
• zone of hypertrophic cartilage

cartilage
• Fourth layer of cells 4 Zone of
calcified
cartilage

• Thin Ossified
bone of

• Dead cells diaphysis

• Calcified extracellular
matrix
• zone of calcified
cartilage
(a) (b)
b: © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc./Al Telser, photographer
13
 Homeostasis of Bone Tissue
• Bone Resorption – action of osteoclasts and parathyroid
hormone aka parathormone aka PTH
• Bone Deposition – action of osteoblasts and calcitonin
• Occurs by direction of the thyroid and parathyroid glands
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Developing
medullary
cavity

Osteoclast
14
© Biophoto Associates/Photo Researchers, Inc.
 Factors Affecting Bone
Development, Growth and Repair
• Deficiency of Vitamin A – retards bone development
• Deficiency of Vitamin C – results in fragile bones
• Deficiency of Vitamin D – rickets, osteomalacia
• Insufficient Growth Hormone – dwarfism
• Excessive Growth Hormone – gigantism, acromegaly
• Insufficient Thyroid Hormone – delays bone growth
• Sex Hormones – promote bone formation; stimulate ossification
of epiphyseal plates
• Physical Stress – stimulates bone growth
15
 Animation:
Bone Growth in Width

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16
 7.4: Bone Function

• Bones shape, support, and protect body structures

17
 Support, Protection,
and Movement
• Support, Movement & Protection
• Gives shape to head, etc.
• Supports body’s weight
• Protects lungs, etc.
• Bones and muscles interact
• When limbs or body parts move

18
 Blood Cell Formation

• Blood Cell Formation

• Also known as hematopoiesis
• Occurs in the red bone marrow

19
 Inorganic Salt Storage
• Inorganic Salt Storage
• Calcium
• Phosphate
• Magnesium
• Sodium
• Potassium

20
 7.5: Skeletal Organization
• The actual number of bones in the human skeleton
varies from person to person

• Typically there are about 206 bones

• For convenience the skeleton is divided into the:

• Axial skeleton
• Appendicular skeleton

21
 Divisions of the Skeleton
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Cranium

• Axial Skeleton Face

Skull

• Skull Hyoid

Clavicle

• Spine Scapula

Sternum

• Rib cage Humerus

Ribs
Vertebral Vertebral
column column

• Appendicular Skeleton
Hip
Carpals bone
Sacrum
Radius
Coccyx

• Upper limbs
Ulna

• Lower limbs Metacarpals

Femur
Phalanges

• Shoulder girdle Patella

• Pelvic girdle Tibia

Fibula

Tarsals
Metatarsals
Phalanges 22
(a) (b)
 7.6: Skull

• Is composed of the cranium (brain case) and the

facial bones

23
 Cranium
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

• Frontal Bone (1) Parietal bone

• Forehead Frontal bone

• Roof of nasal cavity Coronal suture

• Roofs of orbits
Lacrimal bone
Ethmoid bone

• Frontal sinuses Squamous suture Supraorbital foramen

• Supraorbital foramen Sphenoid bone
Temporal bone Nasal bone

• Coronal suture Perpendicular plate

of the ethmoid bone
Sphenoid bone
Middle nasal concha
of the ethmoid bone
Infraorbital foramen
Zygomatic bone
Inferior nasal concha
Vomer bone

Maxilla
Mandible

Mental foramen

24
 Cranium
• Parietal Bones (2) Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

• Side walls of cranium

• Roof of cranium Parietal bone Coronal suture

• Sagittal suture Frontal bone

Squamous suture
Sphenoid bone

Lambdoid suture Ethmoid bone

Occipital bone Lacrimal bone
Nasal bone
Temporal bone
Zygomatic bone

External acoustic meatus Temporal process

of zygomatic bone

Mastoid process Maxilla

Mandibular condyle

Styloid process
Mental foramen
Zygomatic process
of temporal bone Mandible
Coronoid process

25
 Cranium
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

• Occipital Bone (1)

• Back of skull Incisive foramen

• Base of cranium
Palatine process of maxilla
Zygomatic bone
Median palatine suture
• Foramen magnum Frontal bone
Sphenoid bone
Palatine bone

• Occipital condyles Zygomatic arch Greater palatine foramen

• Lambdoidal suture
Vomer bone
Foramen lacerum
Mandibular fossa
Foramen ovale
Styloid process
Foramen spinosum
External acoustic meatus
Carotid canal
Jugular foramen
Stylomastoid foramen
Occipital condyle
Foramen magnum
Mastoid foramen Lambdoid suture
Temporal bone
Condylar canal

Occipital bone

26
 Cranium
• Temporal Bones (2) Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

• Side walls of cranium

• Floor of cranium
Coronal suture
Parietal bone

Frontal bone

• Floors and sides of orbits Squamous suture

Sphenoid bone

• Squamous suture Lambdoid suture Ethmoid bone

• External acoustic meatus Occipital bone Lacrimal bone

Nasal bone

• Mandibular fossa
Temporal bone

Zygomatic bone

• Mastoid process
Temporal process
External acoustic meatus
of zygomatic bone

• Styloid process Mastoid process

Mandibular condyle
Maxilla

• Zygomatic process Styloid process

Mental foramen
Zygomatic process
of temporal bone Mandible

Coronoid process

27
 Cranium
• Sphenoid Bone (1)
• Base of cranium Lesser wing
Optic canal

• Sides of skull
Greater
wing

• Floors and sides

of orbits Foramen rotundum
Foramen spinosum

• Sella turcica Transverse section

(a) Sella turcica Foramen ovale

• Sphenoid sinuses Lesser wing

Greater wing

Superior
orbital fissure

Foramen
rotundum

Lateral pterygoid plate

Medial pterygoid plate

(b)

28
 Cranium
• Ethmoid Bone (1)
• Roof and walls of nasal cavity
• Floor of cranium
• Wall of orbits
• Cribiform plates
Perpendicular
plate Crista galli

• Perpendicular plate Crista galli Superior

nasal concha
• Superior and middle Cribriform
plate

nasal conchae Transverse section

Ethmoidal
sinuses Middle nasal
concha

• Ethmoid sinuses
Orbital
surface
Perpendicular

• Crista galli
plate

(a) (b)

29
 Facial Skeleton
• Maxillary Bones (2) Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

• Upper jaw Coronal suture

• Anterior roof of mouth

Parietal bone

Frontal bone

• Floors of orbits Squamous suture

Sphenoid bone

• Sides of nasal cavity Lambdoid suture Ethmoid bone

• Floors of nasal cavity Occipital bone Lacrimal bone

Nasal bone
Temporal bone

• Alveolar processes External acoustic meatus

Zygomatic bone
Temporal process

• Maxillary sinuses
of zygomatic bone

Mastoid process

• Palatine process
Maxilla
Mandibular condyle

Styloid process
Mental foramen
Zygomatic process
of temporal bone Mandible

Coronoid process

30
 Facial Skeleton
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Frontal sinus

Ethmoidal sinuses

Sphenoidal sinus

Maxillary sinus

31
 Facial Skeleton
• Palatine Bones (2)
• ‘L’ shaped bones located
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
behind the maxillae
• Posterior section of hard
palate
• Floor of nasal cavity
Perpendicular
• Lateral walls of portion

nasal cavity
Coronal section

Horizontal portion

32
 Facial Skeleton
• Zygomatic Bones (2) Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

• Prominences of cheeks Coronal suture

• Lateral walls of orbits

Parietal bone

Frontal bone

• Floors of orbits Squamous suture

Sphenoid bone

• Temporal process Lambdoid suture Ethmoid bone

Occipital bone Lacrimal bone

Nasal bone
Temporal bone

Zygomatic bone
Temporal process
External acoustic meatus
of zygomatic bone

Mastoid process Maxilla

Mandibular condyle

Styloid process
Mental foramen
Zygomatic process
of temporal bone Mandible

Coronoid process

33
 Facial Skeleton
• Lacrimal Bones (2) Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

• Medial walls of orbits

• Groove from orbit to nasal Parietal bone
Coronal suture

Frontal bone
cavity Squamous suture
Sphenoid bone

• Nasal Bones (2) Lambdoid suture

Occipital bone
Ethmoid bone
Lacrimal bone

• Bridge of nose
Nasal bone
Temporal bone

Zygomatic bone
Temporal process
External acoustic meatus
of zygomatic bone

Mastoid process Maxilla

Mandibular condyle

Styloid process
Mental foramen
Zygomatic process
of temporal bone Mandible

Coronoid process

34
 Facial Skeleton

• Vomer Bone (1) Coronal suture

Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

• Inferior portion of nasal Temporal bone

septum Frontal bone

Parietal bone

Squamous suture
Sphenoid bone

Frontal sinus Lambdoid suture

Nasal bone Occipital bone

Crista galli
Internal acoustic meatus
Cribriform plate
Ethmoid
bone Perpendicular plate Jugular foramen
(nasal septum)
Sella turcica
Inferior nasal concha
Palatine process Hypoglossal canal
of maxilla
Styloid process Foramen magnum

Maxilla Sphenoidal sinus Mastoid process

Palatine bone

Vomer bone

Mandible Alveolar processes

35
 Facial Skeleton
• Inferior Nasal Conchae (2) Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

• Extend from lateral Coronal suture

Temporal bone

walls of nasal cavity Frontal bone

Parietal bone

Squamous suture
Sphenoid bone

Frontal sinus Lambdoid suture

Nasal bone Occipital bone

Crista galli
Internal acoustic meatus
Cribriform plate
Ethmoid
bone Perpendicular plate Jugular foramen
(nasal septum)
Sella turcica
Inferior nasal concha
Palatine process Hypoglossal canal
of maxilla
Styloid process Foramen magnum

Maxilla Sphenoidal sinus Mastoid process

Palatine bone

Vomer bone

Mandible Alveolar processes

36
 Facial Skeleton
• Mandible Bone (1)
• Lower jaw Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

• Body
Coronoid Coronoid process
process
Mandibular

• Ramus
foramen Mandibular condyle

• Mandibular condyle
• Coronoid process
Ramus

Alveolar

• Alveolar process
Mandibular
border
foramen
Body

• Mandibular foramen (a)

Mental foramen
Body Alveolar
arch

• Mental foramen
(b)

37
 Infantile Skull
• Fontanels – fibrous membranes
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Frontal suture
(metopic suture)
Frontal bone

Anterior fontanel

Sagittal suture

Posterior fontanel

(b)
38
 7.7: Vertebral Column

• The vertebral column, or spinal column, consists of

many vertebrae separated by cartilaginous intervertebral
discs.

39
 Vertebral Column
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

• Cervical vertebrae (7)

Cervical Cervical
curvature vertebrae

Vertebra

• Thoracic vertebrae (12)

prominens

• Lumbar vertebrae (5) Rib facet

• Sacral (4-5 fused segments) Thoracic

• Sacrum is fused bone Thoracic vertebrae

curvature

• Coccygeal (3-4 fused segments)

• Coccyx is fused bone
Intervertebral

Intervertebral
foramina Lumbar
Lumbar vertebrae
curvature

Sacrum

Sacral
curvature

Coccyx 40
(a) (b)
 Vertebral Column
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

• Cervical curvature Cervical Cervical

• Thoracic curvature curvature vertebrae

Vertebra
prominens

• Lumbar curvature
• Sacral curvature Rib facet

• Rib facets Thoracic

• Vertebral prominens
Thoracic vertebrae
curvature

• Intervertebral discs (IVD) Intervertebral

• Intervertebral foramina (IVF)

Intervertebral
foramina Lumbar
Lumbar vertebrae
curvature

Sacrum

Sacral
curvature

Coccyx 41
(a) (b)
 Typical Vertebrae
• Includes the following parts:
• Vertebral body
• Pedicles
• Lamina
• Spinous process
• Transverse processes
• Vertebral foramen
• Facets

42
 Cervical Vertebrae
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

• Atlas –1st; supports head Posterior

Facet that articulates

• Axis – 2nd; dens pivots to turn with occipital condyle Vertebral

foramen

head
• Transverse foramina Transverse
process

• Bifid spinous processes Anterior

Facet that articulates Transverse
with dens (odontoid process) foramen
• Vertebral prominens – useful of axis Atlas
(a)
landmark
Anterior articular
facet for atlas
Dens Spinous process
Spinous
Superior
process
articular facet

Transverse
foramen

Body
Inferior articular
process Transverse
process
Dens (odontoid
Axis
(b) (c) process)

43
 Thoracic Vertebrae
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Superior
articular
• Long spinous processes process
Pedicle
Transverse
• Rib facets process
Facet for Body
tubercle of rib Intervertebral notch
Superior Body
articular
process Inferior articular
Spinous
Transverse process
process
process
(a)
Inferior articular Spinous process
process Lamina
Intervertebral Transverse process
disc
Facet for tubercle of rib

Superior articular process

Vertebral foramen
Spinous Anterior
Pedicle
process

Body
(b) 44
Posterior
(c)
 Lumbar Vertebrae
• Large bodies
• Thick, short spinous
processes
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Spinous process
Lamina
Superior articular
process

Transverse process
Pedicle Vertebral foramen

Body

(c) Lumbar vertebra

45
 Sacrum
• 4-5 fused segments
• Median sacral crest
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

• Posterior sacral
foramina Sacral promontory Superior articular process Sacral canal

• Posterior wall of pelvic

cavity
• Sacral promontory aka Auricular
surface
base Sacrum Tubercle
of median
• Area toward coccyx is sacral crest

Posterior sacral
the apex foramen

Sacral hiatus

Anterior sacral
foramen
Coccyx

(a) (b)

46
 Coccyx
• Aka tailbone Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

• 3-4 fused segments

Sacral promontory Superior articular process Sacral canal

Auricular
surface

Sacrum Tubercle
of median
sacral crest

Posterior sacral
foramen

Sacral hiatus

Anterior sacral
foramen
Coccyx

(a) (b)

47
 7.8: Thoracic Cage

• The thoracic cage includes the ribs, the thoracic

vertebrae, the sternum, and the costal cartilages that attach
the ribs to the sternum.

48
 Thoracic Cage
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Jugular notch
(suprasternal notch)

• Ribs (12) Sternal angle

1
Thoracic vertebra

Clavicular notch

• Sternum 3
2

Manubrium

• Thoracic vertebrae (12) True ribs

(vertebrosternal
ribs)
4

5 Body Sternum

• Costal cartilages 6

7
Xiphoid process

• Supports shoulder girdle Vertebrochondral

8

9
Ribs

ribs Costal

and upper limbs

False
ribs cartilage
10
11

• Protects viscera
12
Floating ribs
(vertebral ribs)

• Role in breathing
(a)

49
(b)
b: © Victor B. Eichler, PhD
 Ribs
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Jugular notch
(suprasternal notch)
Thoracic vertebra

• Humans have 12 pairs of ribs:

Sternal angle

1 Clavicular notch

• True ribs (7) 3

Manubrium

• False ribs (5), of which:

True ribs 4
(vertebrosternal
ribs) 5 Body Sternum

• Floating (2) 6

7
Xiphoid process

8
Ribs
Vertebrochondral 9

• There are some anomalies:

False ribs Costal
ribs cartilage
10
11

• Cervical ribs Floating ribs

(vertebral ribs)
12

• Lumbar ribs (a)

50
(b)
b: © Victor B. Eichler, PhD
 Rib Structure
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

• Shaft Head
Neck

• Head – posterior end; Tubercle

articulates with vertebrae Anterior end Shaft

• Tubercle – articulates with Costal groove

vertebrae (a)

Spinous process

• Costal cartilage – hyaline Facet

Tubercle
cartilage
Neck

Head

Facet

Shaft

Anterior end
(b) (sternal end)

51
 Sternum
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Jugular notch
(suprasternal notch)

• Three (3) parts of the Sternal angle

1
Thoracic vertebra

Clavicular notch

sternum: 3
2

Manubrium

• Manubrium True ribs

(vertebrosternal
ribs)
4

5 Body Sternum

• Body 6

7
Xiphoid process

• Xiphoid process Vertebrochondral

8

9
Ribs

False ribs Costal

ribs cartilage
10
11
12
Floating ribs
(vertebral ribs)

(a)

52
(b)
b: © Victor B. Eichler, PhD
 7.9: Pectoral Girdle
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

• Also known as the Acromion

process
Acromial end
Sternal end
Clavicle

Head of
shoulder girdle humerus

• Clavicles Coracoid

• Scapulae
process

• Supports upper limbs Sternum

• True shoulder joint is Costal

simply the articulation of Scapula Rib cartilage

the humerus and scapula

Humerus

Ulna
Radius
(a)
53
 Clavicles
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• Articulate with manubrium Acromion

process
Acromial end
Sternal end
Clavicle

• Articulate with scapulae

Head of
humerus

(acromion process) Coracoid

• A-C joint
process

Sternum

Costal
Scapula Rib cartilage

Humerus

Ulna
Radius
(a)
54
 Scapulae
• Spine • Acromion process
• Supraspinous fossa • Coracoid process
• Infraspinous fossa • Glenoid fossa or cavity
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Superior
border
Coracoid
process
Suprascapular Acromion
notch process
Acromion Coracoid
process process
Supra-
Spine glenoid Glenoid
tubercle cavity
Glenoid
cavity Subscapular
Infra-
fossa
Supraspinous glenoid
fossa tubercle
Lateral
Infraspinous (axillary) border
fossa
Medial
(vertebral)
border
(a) (b) (c) 55
 7.10: Upper Limb
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

• Humerus Humerus

• Radius
Humerus Olecranon Olecranon
process fossa

Head of radius

• Ulna Ulna

(c)
Neck of radius

(Interosseous membrane)
• Carpals
• Metacarpals Radius

• Phalanges Ulna

Ulna

Carpals

Metacarpals

Phalanges

(a) Hand (palm anterior) (b) Hand (palm posterior) (d)

56
d: © Martin Rotker
 Humerus
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

• Head Greater tubercle Head Greater tubercle

Anatomical
• Greater tubercle Intertubercular
groove neck

• Lesser tubercle Lesser tubercle

Surgical
neck

• Anatomical neck
• Surgical neck
• Deltoid tuberosity Deltoid tuberosity
• Capitulum
• Trochlea
• Coronoid fossa
• Olecranon fossa
Coronoid Olecranon
fossa fossa
Lateral
Lateral
epicondyle
Medial epicondyle
epicondyle
Capitulum
Trochlea
57
(a) (b)
 Radius
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• Lateral forearm bone Trochlear notch Olecranon

process
• Head Coronoid process

Head of radius
• Radial tuberosity Olecranon
process
• Styloid process Radial tuberosity Trochlear
notch

Coronoid
process
Radial
notch

Radius

(b)

Ulna

Head of ulna

Styloid process
Styloid process Ulnar notch of radius
58
(a)
 Ulna
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• Medial forearm bone Trochlear notch Olecranon

process
• Trochlear notch Coronoid process

Head of radius
• Olecranon process Olecranon
process
• Coronoid process Radial tuberosity Trochlear
notch

• Styloid process Coronoid

process
Radial
notch

Radius

(b)

Ulna

Head of ulna

Styloid process
Styloid process Ulnar notch of radius
59
(a)
 Wrist and Hand
• Carpal Bones (16 total bones) Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

• Scaphoid Radius
• Lunate Scaphoid Ulna
Lunate
Scaphoid
Capitate Capitate
• Triquetral Trapezoid
Hamate
Triquetrum
Trapezoid

• Pisiform Trapezium
Pisiform
Trapezium

• Hamate Carpals

• Capitate (carpus)

• Trapezoid 1
5
1

Metacarpals 5
• Trapezium (metacarpus)
2
3 4 4 3
2

• Metacarpal Bones (10) Proximal

phalanx

• Phalangeal Bones (28) Phalanges

Middle
phalanx

• Proximal phalanx Distal

phalanx
• Middle phalanx
• Distal phalanx
(a) (b)

60
 7.11: Pelvic Girdle
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

• Coxal Bones (2)

Sacral canal

Ilium

• Supports trunk of body

• Protects viscera Sacrum

Sacral hiatus

• Forms pelvic cavity Coccyx

Ischium

Obturator foramen
(b) Pubis

Sacroiliac joint

Ilium

Sacral promontory

Sacrum

Acetabulum
Pubis
Pubic tubercle
Symphysis
Ischium
pubis
Pubic arch 61
(a)
c: © Martin Rotker (c)
 Hip Bones
• Also known as the coxae:
• Acetabulum
• There are three (3) Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

bones: Iliac crest

Iliac fossa Iliac crest

1. Ilium Anterior

• Iliac crest superior

iliac spine Posterior Ilium

• Iliac spines
Ilium superior
Anterior iliac spine

• Greater sciatic notch

inferior
iliac spine Posterior
inferior
2. Ischium Obturator
foramen
iliac spine

• Ischial spines Greater Acetabulum

sciatic notch
Obturator foramen
• Lesser sciatic notch Pubis
Ischium Ischial spine
Pubic crest
Ischium
• Ischial tuberosity Lesser
sciatic notch Pubis Pubic tubercle

3. Pubis Ischial
tuberosity

• Obturator foramen (a) (b)

• Symphysis pubis
• Pubic arch
62
 Greater and Lesser Pelves
• Greater Pelvis Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

• Lumbar vertebrae Flared ilium

posteriorly Sacral promontory

• Iliac bones laterally Pelvic brim

• Abdominal wall
anteriorly Symphysis pubis

• Lesser Pelvis (a) Female pelvis Pubic arch

• Sacrum and coccyx

posteriorly
• Lower ilium, ischium, and Sacral promontory

pubic bones laterally and

Sacral curvature
anteriorly

63
(b) Male pelvis Pubic arch
 Differences Between
Male Female Pelves
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• Female pelvis
• Iliac bones more flared Flared ilium

• Broader hips
Sacral promontory

• Pubic arch angle greater Pelvic brim

• More distance between ischial

spines and ischial tuberosities Symphysis pubis

• Sacral curvature shorter and

flatter (a) Female pelvis Pubic arch

• Lighter bones
• Why?
Sacral promontory

Sacral curvature

64
(b) Male pelvis Pubic arch
 7.12: Lower Limb
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

• Femur Femur

• Patella Femur
Patella

• Tibia Fibula

• Fibula Tibia

• Tarsals Patella
(c) Lateral view

• Metatarsals
• Phalanges Fibula
Femur

Tibia

Lateral
Medial condyle
condyle
Fibula

Tibia

Tarsals
(d) Posterior view
Metatarsals

65
Phalanges

(b)
 Femur
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

• Longest bone of body Fovea capitis

• Head Neck Head

• Fovea capitis
• Neck
Greater
trochanter Gluteal
tuberosity

• Greater trochanter Lesser

trochanter

• Lesser trochanter
• Linea aspera Linea
aspera

• Condyles
• Epicondyles

Lateral Medial
epicondyle epicondyle

Medial Lateral
condyle condyle

Intercondylar
fossa 66
Patellar
(a) surface (b)
 Patella
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

• Aka kneecap
• Anterior surface of the knee Femur

joint Femur
Patella

• Flat sesamoid bone located

Fibula
in the quadriceps tendon
Tibia

(c) Lateral view

Patella

Fibula
Femur

Tibia

Lateral
Medial condyle
condyle
Fibula

Tibia

Tarsals
(d) Posterior view
Metatarsals

67
Phalanges

(b)
 Tibia
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

• Aka shin bone Intercondylar

eminence
Medial
• Medial to fibula
Lateral
condyle condyle
Tibial

• Condyles
Head of
tuberosity
fibula

• Tibial tuberosity Anterior

• Anterior crest
crest

• Makes the medial malleolus Fibula

Tibia

Medial

Lateral
malleolus 68
malleolus
 Fibula
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Intercondylar
• Lateral to tibia Lateral
eminence
Medial

• Long, slender condyle

Head of
condyle
Tibial
tuberosity
• Head fibula

• Makes the lateral malleolus Anterior

crest

• Non-weight bearing
Fibula
Tibia

Medial

Lateral
malleolus 69
malleolus
 Foot
• Tarsal Bones (14)
• Calcaneus
• Talus Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

• Navicular Fibula

• Cuboid Tibia

• Lateral (3rd) cuneiform Talus

• Intermediate (2nd) cuneiform Medial
cuneiformNavicular
• Medial (1st) cuneiform
Metatarsals
(metatarsus)
Calcaneus
Phalanges

• Metatarsal Bones (10) Calcaneal

tuberosity

• Phalanges (28) (b)

Tarsals
(tarsus)

• Proximal
• Middle
• Distal
70
 Foot
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Calcaneus

Talus Tarsals
(tarsus)
Navicular
Cuboid
Lateral cuneiform
Intermediate cuneiform
Medial cuneiform

5
4
3 Metatarsals
2 1
(metatarsus)
Proximal phalanx

Middle phalanx

Distal phalanx Phalanges

71
(a)
 7.13: Lifespan Changes
• Decrease in height at about age 30
• Calcium levels fall
• Bones become brittle
• Osteoclasts outnumber osteoblasts
• Spongy bone weakens before compact bone
• Bone loss rapid in menopausal women
• Hip fractures common
• Vertebral compression fractures common

72
 Animation:
Osteoporosis

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