LECTURE 1.

Seismic Migration Fundamentals

 The Seismic Experiment – Reminder Again!

Source Receiver

Sound waves
Sound waves reflected back
spreading out to the receiver
from the source

This ray summarises

the direction of the
Reflector
sound waves
These two angles are the same.
This is a result of Snell’s Law.
Stacking makes source and receiver
coincident. A normal incidence ray
connects source/receiver position
with reflection point. It is always at
right angles to the reflector
For flat layers the CMP is the same as the CDP
1 2 3
Shot no.

A
Shot CMP = Common Mid Point
Receiver CDP = Common Depth Point
And for flat layers –
Different offsets can be stacked in their correct location
Offset Offset
Shot no. Shot no.
1 2 3 1 2 3
Two Way Time

Two Way Time

+ + =

CMP gather NMO corrected Stacked

CMP gather CMP
 For dipping layers
Stacked traces are not in the correct location
Reflection from blue
parts of reflector
recorded at these points
distance
depth

Rays
reflected
from a
syncline

Rays representing zero-

offset traces are reflected
at right angles to
the surface
 A Syncline appears like this on a Stack
distance
time

Zero-offset
(stack) section

Event is plotted vertically

Below the place where
“bowtie” Reflection is recorded
And after Migration - The Correct Image is Obtained

distance
time

Migrated
section
 Migration Changes Reflector Position and Timing

reflector recorded between

these positions

distance
A C B D
depth

reflector recorded
at time taken to go
dip of along these paths
A dipping reflector
reflector
in a constant
velocity earth
 The Dip Decreases and the Event is Deeper on a Stack

distance
time

Recorded dip less The stack response

than true dip to the dipping
reflector

The reflector is misplaced

horizontally and vertically.
It is longer than the actual
reflector and dips less steeply.
Migration restores the correct Dip and Position of Reflectors

distance
time

Reflector now has The migration

the correct dip of the dipping
reflector

Reflector now
correctly positioned
 Migration Aperture – Need to acquire enough data

The steeper the dip and the

deeper the event, the bigger
the survey area
Minimum area of survey
Area of Target
depth

Target
 Reflector Energy is recorded Far from Reflector Location

distance
time

Events as
recorded

Any discontinuity will result in

a diffraction curve – some of
the energy will be recorded Energy takes a long time
only at large time values to go to and from steeply
dipping events
 How Migration Works

• The previous examples have described

migration in terms of rays, i.e., travel-path from
shot to reflector and then to receiver

• In practice we record seismic waves, and

migration of seismic data utilises wave theory
to image and position events

• Migration can be explained by the Diffraction

Stack concept

Let’s Explain>>>>>
Interval Velocity Model

2000 m/s

3000 m/s

4000 m/s
Each Reflector Point generates a Diffraction
image ray distance

depth

2000 m/s

scatterer 3000 m/s

distance
time

Stack Section

true position
diffraction of scatterer
apex
Unmigrated Section – Reflection made from combining Diffractions

Diffraction Tails
Time Migrated Section
Caspian Time Migration – 100% Velocities
Caspian Time Migration – 90% Velocities
Caspian Time Migration – 110% Velocities
Unmigrated Section

Multiple
Time Migration 100% Velocities
Time Migration 90% Velocities

Multiple
Time Migration 110% Velocities
 Exercise – How big is the structure?

Use spreadsheet Migration_Dip.xls

Referring back to the acquisition exercise
•Target dip is 40 degrees
•RMS Velocity to target is 3000m/s
•The Depth to target is 3km at crest,

•Where would this event appear on a stack section in TWT?

•What is the minimum migration aperture needed to image

the reservoir at its correct location

•Use spreadsheet Migration_VelError.xls

•If the migration velocity was wrong by +/- 250m/s, what
would be the impact on vertical and horizontal positioning?

What is the impact of incorrect velocities on structure size

and positioning?
 What Migration and When?

You may have heard of many types of seismic migration:

•Post-Stack
•Pre-stack
•Time Classes
•Depth

•Kirchhoff
•Finite Difference
•Phase Shift Implementation Issues
•etc.

We will talk about differences in the classes in first group

above today. We will discuss the algorithms in the second
group later in the week.
 Time Migration

S S/R R

•Time Migration theory is Vel1

based on straight rays

•It uses RMS velocities for the

earth model

•It can be used with smooth

vertical velocity gradients
Vel2
•It fails when there is
significant refraction effects in
the overburden Vel3
 Depth Migration

S S/R R

•Depth Migration theory

allows for bent rays (i.e., Vel1
refraction)

•It uses interval velocities for

the earth model

•It can be used with rapidly

varying vertical and lateral
velocity changes Vel2
•It fails when the velocity
model isn’t accurate enough Vel3
to define the ray-bending
 Pre-Stack Migration –A CMP is not a CDP

Midpoint

As shot receiver separation

increases, reflection point
moves up dip

Shot
Receiver
 When to Use Pre-Stack Migration

V1
Time A Time A V1

V2 V2

V3 V3
Time B Time B

Two reflections arrive at the same Two reflections arrive at the same
time from the same horizon. time from the different horizons.

Standard NMO will have stacking Standard NMO will have stacking
velocity conflicts because stacking velocity conflicts because of different
velocity dependent on dip of event. overburdens. DMO will not solve the
problem

SOLUTION: DMO SOLUTION:Pre-stack time migration

 Impact of Pre-stack Time Migration

5 y (km) 10 5 y (km) 10

4 4
depth (km)

6 6
Poststack Prestack
 Time or Depth Migration – A Review

Time Migration
•Time Migration is used in areas of relatively simple velocity variations

•Post-stack Time Migration can be used if the data can be adequately

stacked (using DMO)

•Pre-Stack Time Migration is needed in areas of conflicting dip and

increasing vertical velocity gradient

Depth Migration
•Depth Migration is used in areas of complex velocity variations

•Post-stack Depth Migration can be used if the data can be adequately

stacked (where overburden layer causing refraction is relatively simple)

•Pre-Stack Depth Migration is needed in areas of rapidly varying and

complex velocity in the overburden
Depth Migration – To Position Data Correctly
image ray distance

depth

2000 m/s

scatterer 2500 m/s

distance
time

Stack Section
Diffraction not
symmetrical
Apex not above
true position
diffraction of scatterer
scatterer
apex
After Time and Depth Migration
distance

time

true position
of scatterer Time Migration
diffraction hyperbola
incorrectly collapsed
and mispositioned

distance
time

Depth Migration
Interval Velocity Model

2000 m/s

3000 m/s

4000 m/s
Unmigrated Section
Time Migrated Section (converted to depth)
Depth Migrated Section
Alaska – Difference between Time and Depth Migration
 Alaska – Fault Repositioning

Difference in Fault Positioning between Time and Depth Migration

Time
Depth
Caspian Depth Migration – 100% Velocities for Migration
Caspian Time Migration – 100% Velocities - Depth Converted
 Why 3D Pre-stack Depth Migration?
Source Receiver
Seabed Seabed

Sediment Sediment
•Depth Migration theory can Salt
handle bent raypaths Salt
Seismic
Wave Sediment
•For complex overburden, Sediment
R
e.g. sub-salt, rays are bent on R
all offsets Reflector R

Seismic Wave Travel Path Through Time Processed Seismic Data

•Conventional velocity Sediment and Salt (not accounting for distortion through salt)

analysis cannot correct for

this (remember velocity
section – straight rays!) Seabed Seabed

•Pre-stack Depth migration Sediment Sediment

removed bending on all
offsets in CDP gather Salt Salt

Sediment Sediment

R R R R

Post-Stack Depth Processed Seismic Data Pre-Stack Depth Processed Seismic Data
(accounting for some of the distortion through salt) (fully accounting for distortion through salt)
 GoM Sub-Salt Imaging (Neptune)

3D PoststackTime 3D Prestack Depth

SALT SALT
 3D Migration – It’s Essential!
2Darea
M Seismic Line BA-W-140201
3D arbitrary seismic line through
overlyingMthe
3D2D
area
line
 3D Pre-Stack Time Migration Costs
Average UnitPSTM
3D Marine Costs = $500/sq.km
Processing Costs

$3,500,000

$3,000,000

$2,500,000
Contract Value - $

$2,000,000

$1,500,000

$1,000,000

$500,000

$0
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000
Project Size - line km
 3D Pre-Stack Depth Migration Costs
Average Unit Costs = $1000-2000/sq.km

$4,000,000
$3,500,000
$3,000,000
$2,500,000
$2,000,000
$1,500,000
$1,000,000
$500,000
$0
0 1000 2000 3000 4000
Migration – Key Points

•Migration is necessary to image and position data in its

correct location

•The velocity model is essential and must be built

iteratively

•Choice of time or depth migration is dependent on

velocity model complexity

•Pre-Stack depth migration may enhance ability to stack,

image and position data correctly

•Costs increase sharply from time to depth, post-stack to

pre-stack
 Migration – Appendices

Migration Vertical and Lateral Displacement - Equations

Appendix: Un-Migrated and Migrated Position Relationships

distance

Ф θ

Z= VT Z= VT
2 2
NOTE:
depth or scaled time

Tan  = Sin 

M
U Dz or DT
Dx
diffraction
hyperbola
 Dips and Position on Migrated and Unmigrated data
U Unmigrated position X Horizontal distance

M Migrated poition Z Depth

 Unmigrated dip V Velocity

 Migrated dip

T Unmigrated dip on a time section

Z Unmigrated dip on a depth section

T Migrated dip on a time section

Z Migrated dip on a depth section

TU Unmigrated Two-way Time

TM Migrated Two-way Time

Migration – Horizontal Displacement DX

As a function of migrated dip in

depth:

DX = Z sin  z
cos  z

As a function of unmigrated time

and unmigrated time dip:

DX = V2 TU tan T
4
Migration – Vertical Displacement DZ or DT

As a function of migrated depth:

DZ = Z (1 – cos  z)

As a function of unmigrated time

and unmigrated time dip:

TM = TU (1- Tan2 TV2/4)1/2

DT = TU - TM