PHYSICAL SEPARATION PROCESSES

ECH3118
FAIZAH MD YASIN

Separation Process –
Settling & Sedimentation
 Introduction

Settling
- process by which particulates settle to the bottom of a liquid and
form a sediment

Sediment
- any particulate matter that can be transported by fluid flow and
which eventually is deposited as a layer of solid particles on the
bed or bottom of a body of water or other liquid

Sedimentation
- the deposition by settling of a suspended material
- the separation of a dilute slurry or suspension by gravity settling
into a clear fluid and a slurry of higher solids content
 Introduction
In settling and sedimentation, the particles are separated from the fluid by
gravitational forces acting on the particles

Applications of settling and sedimentation:

i. removal of solids from liquid sewage wastes
ii. Separation of liquid-liquid mixture from a solvent-extraction stage in a
settler
iii. Settling of solid food particles from a liquid food
iv. Settling of a slurry from a soybean leaching process

When a particle is at a sufficient distance from the walls of the container and
from other particles so that its fall is not affected by them, the process is called
free settling
When the particles are crowded, the settle at lower rate and is called hindered
settling
Theory of Particle Movement Through a Fluid
1. Derivation of basic equations for rigid spheres
• Whenever a particle is moving through a fluid, a number of forces will be acting on
the particle
• A density difference is needed between the particle and the fluid. Therefore, an
external force of gravity is needed to impart motion to the particle. When the densities
is equal, the buoyant force will counterbalance the external force
• Forces for a rigid particle moving in a fluid that acting on the body : gravity acting
downward, buoyant force acting upward, and resistance or drag force acting in
opposite direction to the particle motion
• The density of solid particle is ρp kg/m3 solid and the liquid is ρ kg/m3 liquid. The
buoyant force Fb in N on the particle of mass m kg falling at a velocity v m/s relative
to the fluid is:
(1)

where m/ρp is the volume Vp, in m3 of the particle and g is the gravitational
acceleration in m/s2.
(2)
Theory of Particle Movement Through a Fluid

• The drag force FD on a body in N may be derived from the fact that, as in flow
of fluids, the drag force or frictional resistance is proportional to the velocity
head v2/2 of the fluid displaced by the moving body. This must be multiplied
by the density of the fluid and by a significant area A, such as the projected
area of the particle.
the drag coefficient CD is the
(3) proportionality constant and is
dimensionless.
Theory of Particle Movement Through a Fluid

• The resultant force on the body is the Fg-Fb-FD. This resultant force must equal
the force due the acceleration:

(4)

• Substituting Eq. (1)-(3) into (4),

(5)

• When the moment of the body is released from its position of rest, the falling of
the body consist of two periods: the period of accelerated fall and the period of
constant-velocity fall.
Theory of Particle Movement Through a Fluid

• The initial acceleration is very short. So, the period of constant-velocity fall is the
important one. It is called the free settling velocity or terminal velocity vt
• To solve the terminal velocity in Eq. (5), dv/dt = 0 and the equation becomes

(6)

• For spherical particles m = πDp3ρp/6 and A = πDp2/4. Substituting these into Eq. (6),
for spherical particles:

(7)

where vt is m/s (ft/s), ρ is kg/m3 (Ibm/ft3), g is 9.80665 m/s2 (32.174 ft/s2), and is m (ft).
Theory of Particle Movement Through a Fluid
2. Drag coefficient for rigid spheres

• The drag coefficient for rigid spheres has been shown to be a function of the Reynolds
number Dpvρ/µ of the sphere
• In laminar-flow region, called the Stokes’ law region for NRe<1, the drag coefficient is:

(8)

where µ is the viscosity of the liquid in Pa·s or kg/m·s (Ibm/ft·s).

• Substituting into Eq. (7) for laminar flow,

(9)
Theory of Particle Movement Through a Fluid

• For other shapes of particles, drag coefficients will be different

• If the particles are quite small, Brownian motion is present. Brownian motion
is the random motion imparted to the particle by collisions between the
molecules of the fluid surrounding the particle and the particle.
• This movement is in random directions to suppress the effect of the gravity, so
settling of the particles may occur more slowly or not at all
• The effect becomes appreciable when the particle sizes is a few micrometers
and at size of less then 0.1 µm, the effect predominates.
• For very small particles, the centrifugal force help to reduce the effect
• For particles that are rigid but nonspherical, the drag upon the shape of the
particle and the orientation of the particle with respect to its motion
Theory of Particle Movement Through a Fluid

Fig. 1 Drag coefficient for a rigid sphere.

 Sedimentation- mechanism
Sedimentation uses gravitational forces to separate particulate material
from fluid streams. The particles are usually solid, but they can be small
liquid droplets, and the fluid can be either a liquid or a gas.

Sedimentation is very often used in the food industry for separating dirt
and debris from incoming raw material, crystals from their mother liquor
and dust or product particles from air streams.

In sedimentation, particles are falling from rest under the force of

gravity. Therefore in sedimentation, Stokes' Law applies:

vm = D2g(ρp - ρf)/18µ
Stokes' Law applies only to cases in which settling is free, that is where the motion
of one particle is unaffected by the motion of other particles. Where particles are in
concentrated suspensions, an appreciable upward motion of the fluid accompanies
the motion of particles downward. So the particles interfere with the flow patterns
around one another as they fall. Stokes' Law predicts velocities proportional to the
square of the particle diameters. In concentrated suspensions, it is found that all
particles appear to settle at a uniform velocity once a sufficiently high level of
concentration has been reached. Where the size range of the particles is not much
greater than 10:1, all the particles tend to settle at the same rate. This rate lies
between the rates that would be expected from Stokes' Law for the largest and for
the smallest particles. In practical cases, in which Stoke's Law or simple extensions
of it cannot be applied, probably the only satisfactory method of obtaining settling
rates is by experiment.
Sedimentations
 Hindered settling
Particles will not settle as perfect spheres at their terminal velocity
under a variety of conditions:

1. if they are hindered by other particles

2. they are non-spherical
3. concentrated feeds: particles form clusters that tend to settle
faster
4. concentrated feeds: modify the apparent density and viscosity of
the fluid
5. upward velocity of displaced fluids
6. small particles are dragged in the wake of larger particles
7. ionized conditions can cause particle coagulation
–larger diameters - faster settling
 Hindered Settling

• For hindered flow, the settling velocity is less than would be calculated from Eq. (9) for
Stokes’ law
• The true drag force is greater in the suspension because of the interference of the other
particles
• The higher effective viscosity of the mixture µm is equal to the actual viscosity of the
liquid itself, µ, divided by an empirical correction factor, Ψp, which depends upon ε, the
volume fraction of the slurry mixture occupied by the liquid:

(12)

• Where Ψp is dimensionless and is as follows:

(13)
 Hindered Settling

• The density of the fluid phase effectively become the bulk density of the
slurry ρm, which is as follows:

(14)

• Where is the density of slurry ρm in kg + liquid/m3. The density difference

is now

(15)
 Hindered Settling
• substituting mixture properties of µm from Eq. (12) for µ in Eq. (9), (ρp-ρm), from Eq.
(15) for (ρp-ρ), and multiplying the result by ε for the relative-velocity effect, Eq. (9)
becomes, for laminar settling,

(16)

• This is the velocity calculated from Eq. (9), multiplied by the correction factor (ε2Ψp) .
• The Reynolds number is then based on the velocity relative to the fluid and is

• When the Reynolds number is less then 1, the settling is in the Stokes’ law range
 Wall Effect on Free Settling

• When the diameter Dp of the particle becomes appreciable with respect to the
diameter Dw of the container in which the settling is occurring, a retarding effect
known as the wall effect is exerted on the particle.
• The terminal settling velocity is reduced
• In the case of settling in the Stokes’ law regime, the computed terminal velocity can
be multiplied by the following to allow the wall effect for Dp/Dw <0.05:

(18)

• For a completely turbulent regime, the correction factor is

(19)
Example : Settling velocity of dust particles
Calculate the settling velocity of dust particles of (a) 60 mm and (b)10 mm diameter in
air at 21°C and 100 kPa pressure. Assume that the particles are spherical and of
density 1280 kg m-3, and that the viscosity of air = 1.8 x 10-5 N s m-2 and density of air
= 1.2 kg m-3.

For 60 mm particle:
vm = (60 x 10-6)2 x 9.81 x (1280 - 1.2)
(18 x 1.8 x 10-5)
= 0.14 m s-1

For 10 mm particles since vm is proportional to the squares of the diameters,

vm = 0.14 x (10/60)2
= 3.9 x 10-3 m s-1.

Checking the Reynolds number for the 60 mm particles,

(Re) = (Dvρb/µ)
= (60 x 10-6 x 0.14 x 1.2) / (1.8 x 10-5)
= 0.56
Gravitational Sedimentation of Particles in a
Liquid

Solids will settle in a liquid whose density is less than their own. At low
concentration, Stokes' Law will apply but in many practical instances the
concentrations are too high.
In a cylinder in which a uniform suspension is allowed to settle, various quite well-
defined zones appear as the settling proceeds. At the top is a zone of clear liquid.
Below this is a zone of more or less constant composition, constant because of the
uniform settling velocity of all sizes of particles. At the bottom of the cylinder is a
zone of sediment, with the larger particles lower down. If the size range of the
particles is wide, the zone of constant composition near the top will not occur and an
extended zone of variable composition will replace it.
In a continuous thickener, with settling proceeding as the material flows through, and in
which clarified liquid is being taken from the top and sludge from the bottom, these same
zones occur. The minimum area necessary for a continuous thickener can be calculated by
equating the rate of sedimentation in a particular zone to the counter-flow velocity of the
rising fluid. In this case we have:
vu = (F - L)(dw/dt)/Aρ

where vu is the upward velocity of the flow of the liquid, F is the mass ratio of liquid to
solid in the feed, L is the mass ratio of liquid to solid in the underflow liquid, dw/dt is the
mass rate of feed of the solids, ρ is the density of the liquid and A is the settling area in the
tank.
If the settling velocity of the particles is v, then vu = v and, therefore:

A = (F - L)(dw/dt)/vρ

The same analysis applies to particles (droplets) of an immiscible liquid as to solid

particles. Motion between particles and fluid is relative, and some particles may in fact rise
 Separating of oil and water

A continuous separating tank is to be designed to follow after a water washing plant

for liquid oil. Estimate the necessary area for the tank if the oil, on leaving the
washer, is in the form of globules 5.1 x 10-5 m diameter, the feed concentration is 4
kg water to 1 kg oil, and the leaving water is effectively oil free. The feed rate is
1000 kg h-1, the density of the oil is 894 kg m-3 and the temperature of the oil and
of the water is 38°C. Assume Stokes' Law.

(answer : vt = 2.15 x 10-4 m s-1 , A = 1.0m2)

From Stokes’ law, vm = D2g(ρp - ρf)/18µ

vm = (5.1 x 10-5)2 x 9.81 x (1000 - 894)/(18 x 0.7 x 10-3)

= 2.15 x 10-4 m s-1 = 0.77 m h-1.

and since F = 4 and L = 0, and dw/dt = flow of minor component = 1000/5 =

200 kg h-1, we have

A = 4 x 200/(0.77 x 1000)
= 1.0 m2
Differential settling and separations

1. Sink and float – classifier ( settling based

on particle density)
2. Differential settling methods- based on
particle size
 Differential settling and separations
1. Sink-and-float methods
• Devices for the separation of solid particles into several fractions based upon their
rates of flow or settling through fluids are known as classifiers
• In this methods, a liquid is used whose density is intermediate between that of the
heavy or high-density material and that of the light-density material
• In this liquid , the heavy particles will not float but settle out from the medium, while
the light particles will float
• Depends only upon the relative densities of the two materials – the liquids must have
densities greater than water
• Pseudoliquids can be used, which is consisting of a suspension in water of very fine
solid materials of very fine solid materials with high specific gravities, such as galena
and magnetite.
• Used hindered settling and the bulk density of the medium can be varied widely by
varying the amount of the fine solid materials in the medium
• Common applications are concentrating ore materials and cleaning coal
 Differential settling and separations
2. Differential settling methods
• The separation of solid particles into several size fractions based upon their settling velocities in a
particular medium is called differential settling or classification.
• Density of the medium is less than that of either of the two substances to be separated
• In differential settling, both light and heavy materials settle though a medium.
• Suppose that there are two materials: heavy-density material A (such as galena, with a specific gravity ρA
= 7.5) and light-density material B (such as quartz, with a specific gravity ρA = 2.65). The terminal
settling velocity of components A and B, from Eq. (7), can be written

(20)

(21)
• For particles of equal settling velocities, vtA = vtB, by equating Eq. (20) to (21), canceling terms, and
squaring both sides.
(22)
or

(23)
 Differential settling and separations
• For particles that are essentially spheres at very high Reynolds numbers in the turbulent
Newton’s law region, CD is constant and CDA = CDB, giving

(24)
• For laminar Stokes’ law settling

(25)

• Substituting Eq. (25) into Eq. (23) and rearranging for Stokes’ law settling, where vtA =
vtB,
(26)

• For transition flow between laminar and turbulent flow,

(27)

• For particle settling in the turbulent range, Eq. (24) holds for equal settling velocities.
 Differential settling and separations
• For particles CDA = CDB and settling is in the turbulent Newton’s law region, containing
Eq. (20) and (21),

(28)

• If both A and B particles are settling in the same medium, then Eq. (24) and (28) can be
used to make the plots given in Fig. 1 for the relation of velocity to diameter A and B.

FIGURE 3. Settling and separation of two

materials A and B in Newton’s law region.
 Sedimentation and Thickening

1. Mechanisms of sedimentation
• When a dilute slurry is settled by gravity into a clear fluid and a slurry of higher
solids concentration, the process is called sedimentation or sometimes thickening.
• To illustrate the method for determining settling velocities and the mechanisms of
settling, a batch settling test is carried out by placing uniform concentration of slurry
in a graduated cylinder
 Sedimentation and Thickening
• At the start, all the particles settle by free settling in suspension zone B.
• The particles zone B settle at a uniform rate at the start, and a clear liquid zone A appears.
The height of z drops at a constant rate.
• Zone D also begins to appear, which contains the settled particles at the bottom and zone C
is a transition layer whose solids content varies from that in zone B to that in zone D.
• After further settling, zone B and C disappear. Then compression first appears; this moment
is called the critical point
• During compression, liquid is expelled upward from zone D and the thickness of zone D
decreases.

FIGURE 4. Batch sedimentation results:

(a) original uniform suspension,
(b) zones of settling after a given time,
(c) compression of zone D after zones B
and C disappear,
(d) clear liquid interface height z versus
time of settling.
 Sedimentation and Thickening
2. Determination of settling velocity
• The velocity of settling, which is the slope of the line, is constant at first
• The critical point is shown at point C.
• Since sludges vary greatly in their settling rates, experimental rates for each sludge are
necessary.
• The settling velocity v is determined by drawing a tangent to the curve at a given time t1, with
slope –dz/dt=v1.
• At this point the height is z1, and z1 is the intercept of the tangent to the curve. Then,

(31)
• The concentrated c1 is therefore, the average concentration of the suspension if zi is the height
of the slurry. This is calculated by

(32)
• This is repeated for other times, and a plot of settling velocity versus concentration is made
 Equipment for Settling and Sedimentation
1. Simple gravity settling tank
• In Fig. (a), a simple gravity is shown for removing by settling a dispersed liquid phase
from another phase
• The velocity horizontally to the right must be slow enough to allow time for the smallest
droplets to rise from the bottom to the interface or form the top down to the interface and
coalesce.
• In Fig (b), dust-laden air enters at one end of a large, boxlike chamber.
• Particles settle toward the floor at their terminal settling velocities.
• The air must remain in the chamber a sufficient length of time (residence time) so that
particles reach the floor of the chamber
• The vertical height of the chamber must be small enough that this height, divided by
settling velocity, gives a time less than the residence time of the air
Equipment for Settling and Sedimentation

2. Equipment for classification

• The simplest type of classifier is simple gravity settling classifier
• A liquid slurry feed enters the tank containing a size range of solid particles
• The larger, faster-settling particles settle to the bottom close to the entrance and the
slower-settling particles settle to the bottom close to the exit
• The linear velocity of the entering feed decreases as a result of the enlargement of the
cross-sectional area at the entrance
• The vertical baffles in the tank allow for the collection of several fractions
• The settling-velocity equations derived in this section hold
 Equipment for Settling and Sedimentation
3. Spitzkasten classifier
• Consists of a series of conical vessels on increasing diameter in the direction of flow
• The slurry enters the first vessel, where the largest and fastest-settling particles are separated
• The overflow goes to the next vessel, where another separation occurs.
• This continues in the succeeding vessel or vessels.
• In each vessels the velocity of upflowing inlet water is controlled to give the desired range for
each vessel
 Equipment for Settling and Sedimentation
4. Sedimentation thickener
• The slurry is fed at the center of the tank several feet below the surface of the liquid
• Around the top edge of the tank is a clear-liquid-overflow outlet
• The rake serves to scrape the sludge toward the center of the bottom for removal. This gentle
stirring aids in removing water from sludge
• In the thickener, the entering sludge spreads radially through the cross section of the thickener
and the liquid flows upward and out the overflow
• The solids settle in the upper zone by free settling
• Below this dilute settling zone is the transition zone, in which the concentration of solids
increases rapidly, and then the compression zone
• A clear overflow can be obtained if the upward velocity of the fluid in the dilute zone is less
than the minimal terminal settling of velocity of the solids in this zone
Factors affecting the sedimentation process
a)Height of suspension
The height of suspension does not generally affect either the rate of
sedimentation or the consistency of the sediment ultimately obtained.
b)Diameter of vessel
If the ratio of the diameter of the vessel to the diameter of the particle is
greater than about 100, the walls of the container appear to have no
effect on the rate of sedimentation. For smaller values, the
sedimentation rate may be reduced because of the retarding influence of
the walls.
c)Concentration of suspension
The higher the concentration, the lower is the rate of fall of the sludge
line because the greater is the upward velocity of the displaced fluid and
the steeper are the velocity gradients in the fluid.
 The Kynch theory of sedimentation

The behaviour of concentrated suspensions during sedimentation has been

analysed by KYNCH, largely using considerations of continuity.
The basic assumptions which are made are as follows:
(a) Particle concentration is uniform across any horizontal layer,
(b) Wall effects can be ignored,
(c) There is no differential settling of particles as a result of differences in
shape, size, or composition,
(d) The velocity of fall of particles depends only on the local concentration of
particles,
(e) The initial concentration is either uniform or increases towards the bottom
of the suspension
(f) The sedimentation velocity tends to zero as the concentration approaches a
limiting value corresponding to that of the sediment layer deposited at the
bottom of the vessel.
Study examples:

• 14.3-1
• 14.3-2
• 14.3-3