Process

Control
&
Instrumentation
 Process Instrumentation
• Many process variables have to be measured and
manipulated to ensure a safe and efficient operation.
• Instrumentation provides the means of monitoring, recording
and controlling a process to maintain it at a desired state.
• An instrument could indicate the process state at the location
of its mounting. This form of data display is referred to as local
or field indication. The instrument is referred to as a gauge.
• Instead of indicating the process status locally, or transporting
the actual process to the control room, it is often desirable to be
able to transmit a representative signal corresponding to the
process state, to the central control room for remote indication.
The instrument used may be a switch indicating discrete states
or a transmitter indicating continuously varying process states.
 Characteristics of Instrumentation
• Instrument is a device that transforms a physical variable of interest (the
measurand) into a form that is suitable for transmission (the
measurement).
• It is common to employ a standard system of units by which the
measurement from one instrument can be compared with the
measurement of another.
• The observable variable X need not necessarily be the measurand but
simply related to the measurand in some known way.

Physical Measurement Signal

Variable Variable Measurement
x s M
Measurand Sensor

Physical Process Simple Instrument Model Display

 Functional Element of Instrument
• Sensor has the function of converting the physical variable input into a
signal variable output.
• Signal variables have the property that they can be manipulated in a
transmission system, such as an electrical or mechanical circuit.
• In a basic instrument, the signal is transmitted to a display or recording
device where the measurement can be read by a human observer.
• The observed output is the measurement M.
• There are many types of display devices, ranging from simple scales to
sophisticated computer display systems.
• The output signal can also be used directly by some larger system of
which the instrument is a part, or may be used as the input signal of a
closed loop control system.
Physical Measurement Signal
Variable Variable Measurement
x s M
Measurand Sensor

Physical Process Simple Instrument Model Display

 Possible Measurement Variables
Common Physical Variables: Typical Signal Variables:
• Force • Current
• Length • Voltage
• Temperature • Displacement
• Acceleration
• Force
• Velocity
• Pressure
• Pressure
• Flow • Light
• Frequency • Frequency
• Capacity
• Resistance
• Time
• …
 Basic concepts : Instrument Model: More
General

Input Output
Sensing Signal Signal Data
element conditioning processing presentation

Temperature Thermocouple
Pressure Bridges Meters
Strain gauge Amplifiers A/D, D/A converters
Conductivity Orifice plate Recorders
Filters F/V converter
Velocity Computer
Force
 Sensing Element(Sensors/Transducer)

● In contact with the process.

● Gives output which depends in someway on the variable
to be measured (or converts the process variable into
electrical parameter).
● Examples:
Thermocouple – converts temperature into value
of millivolts e.m.f
Strain gauge – converts mechanical strain into resistance.
Signal Conditioning
● Takes output of the sensing element.
● Converts the output into a form more suitable for
further processing usually a d.c voltage, d.c current,
or frequency signal.
● Example:
Bridge – converts an impedance change
into a voltage change.
Amplifier – amplifies millivolts to volts.
Oscillator – converts an impedance into a variable
frequency voltage.
 Signal Processing
● Takes output of the conditioning element and converts it
into a form more suitable for presentation.
● Example:
Analogue-to-Digital converter(ADC)
- converts an analogue voltage into a digital form
for input to computer
Microcomputer
- calculates the measured value of the variable from
the incoming digital data.
Data Presentation

● Presents the measured value in a form which

can be easily recognised by the observer.
● Examples:
A simple pointer – scale indicator
Oscilloscope
Chart recorder
Alphanumeric display
Visual display unit
 Basic concepts : Measurement System - Transducers
Monitoring
function

Input Transducer Signal Regulatory

measurand / Sensor conditioner function

Power Protection
supply function

Transducer
Transducer converts one form of energy (measurand quantity) into another.
Transducers can be classified as –
1. Active & Passive or 2. Analog & Digital or 3. Primary & Secondary.
Active transducers do not need external excitation and operate as “energy conversion” devices.
Examples – Thermoelectric, Piezoelectric, Photovoltaic, Electromagnetic transducers.
Passive transducers require external excitation and operate as “energy controlling” devices.
Examples – Resistive, Inductive, Capacitive, Thermoresistive, Photoconductive transducers.
Signal conditioner may amplify, filter, linearise and convert the transducer output to analog or
digital signal.
From operational point of view transducers can be primary (sensor directly responding to
process parameter) or secondary (device designed to measure the response of primary
transducer and giving suitable signal output). This is a broader definition of transducers.
Basic concepts :
Calibration, Standards and Traceability
Calibration is the measurement of performance of an instrument, which ensures the
continued accuracy of measurements made with it.

Calibration :
Def.: A set of operations that establish, under specified conditions, the relationship
between values of quantities indicated by a measuring instrument or measuring
system, and the corresponding values realized by standards.

Calibration is done against a standard instrument of higher accuracy to detect, correlate,

adjust, rectify and document the accuracy of the instrument being compared.
Generally, calibration is regarded as the process of adjusting the output or indication on a
measurement instrument to agree with value of the standard and includes adjusting the
instrument to zero and setting the desired span.
Calibration procedures involves a comparison of instrument with either a primary
standard, or a secondary standard or a test standard.
Standards :
Measurement standards, are physical measure, measuring instrument, reference material or
measuring system intended to define, realize, conserve or reproduce a unit or one or more
values of a quantity to serve as a reference.

To be meaningful, the standard must satisfy the following requirements –

1. the standard must be accurately known and internationally accepted,
2. the standard must not change with time and place and
3. the apparatus and experimental procedure adopted for comparison must be provable
On the basis of the accuracy of measurement the standards can be classified as primary
standards and secondary standards.
Primary Standard
Primary standard is designated or widely acknowledged as having the highest
metrological qualities and whose value is accepted without reference to other
standards of the same quantity. No pre-calibration is required for this instrument. It is
used to calibrate the instruments having less accuracy. By comparing the readings of
the two instruments, the accuracy of the second instrument can be determined.
Secondary Standard
Secondary standards are standards whose value is assigned by comparison to a
primary standard of the same quantity. Primary standards are usually used to
calibrate secondary standards. For measurement of a quantity using secondary
standard instrument, pre-calibration is required. Calibration of a secondary standard
is made by comparing the results with a primary standard instrument or with an
instrument having higher accuracy or with a known input source
Working or Test standards:
The primary /secondary standards are quite expensive and usually delicate which
may be maintained in labs. The application of such standard is attractive in its
promise of ultimate accuracy and repeatability, but it is difficult for practical use in
the field. Therefore some working standards or test standards are used for field
calibration of instruments. These are usually calibrated with reference to a secondary
standard, and may be used to ensure that routine measurements are being carried out
correctly.
Traceability :

All calibrations should be traceable to a nationally or internationally recognized

standard. Without documented traceability, the uncertainty of any measurement is
unknown.
Traceability is defined as the property of the result of a measurement or the value
of a standard whereby it can be related to stated references, usually national or
international standards, through an unbroken chain of comparisons all having
stated uncertainties.
Traceability is accomplished by ensuring the test standards we use are routinely
calibrated by “higher level” reference standards. It is not necessary that a
calibration lab/shop needs to have its standards calibrated with a primary standard.
But calibrations should be traceable to national or international standards, no
matter how many levels exist in between.

BIPM Paris maintains international standards. National Institute of Standards and

Technology (NIST) in United States, National Physical Lab in UK, Deutsches Institut für
Normung (DIN) in Germany maintain the nationally recognized standards. . The
National Physical Laboratory in New Delhi, under CSIR is the measurement standards
laboratory of India.
 Traceability
Each calibration service provider must maintain an effective
traceability chain. At the very least, the primary standard must be
calibrated at an outside laboratory and then used for calibrations. In
case the calibration service maintains working standards, all of them
must be calibrated using primary standards including all supportive
measurements.
 The International System of Units
The SI was developed in 1960 from the old meter-kilogram-
second (mks) system.

Base Units
Quantity Name Symbol
Length meter m
Mass kilogram kg
Time second s
Amount of substance mole mol
Thermodynamic temperature Kelvin K
Electric current amperes amps
Luminous intensity candela cd
 The Official Standard Meter
Historically, the meter was defined by the French Academy of Sciences as
the length between two marks on a platinum-iridium bar, which was
designed to represent 1⁄10,000,000 of the distance from the equator to the north
pole through Paris. (From 1889 to 1960)

As 1,650,763.73 wavelengths of
the orange-red emission line in the
electromagnetic spectrum of the
krypton-86 atom in a vacuum.
(From 1960 to 1983)

In 1983, the length standard, the meter, was redefined as the

length of the path travelled by light in a vacuum during a time
interval of duration 1/299 792 458 of a second.
 The Official Standard Kilogram, Second
The mass standard, the kilogram, is defined
as being the mass of an alloy cylinder (90%
platinum-10% iridium), held at the
International Bureau of Weights and
Measures at Sevres in France. Duplicates of
this standard are held in other countries.

Under the International System of Units, the second is currently defined

as -
The duration of 9 192 631 770 periods of the radiation corresponding to
the transition between the two hyperfine levels of the ground state of the
cesium 133 atom.
 Derived Units
Quantity Name Symbol
Area square meter m2
Volume cubic meter m3
Force newton N
Pressure pascal Pa
Energy joule J
Power watt W
Voltage volt V
Frequency hertz Hz
Electric charge coulomb C
 Basic concepts :Types of errors
Error: It is the difference between the measured value and the true value.
Error = Measured value – True value.
Correction: True value – Measured value

Errors, in general, are classified as random and systematic errors.

 Systematic error: Systematic errors have definite magnitude and
direction. These are reproducible inaccuracy introduced by faulty
equipment, calibration or technique.
Systematic error is constant for the duration of a test or measurement.
 Random error: As the name suggests, these errors are random in their
occurrence and variable in magnitude, and usually follow a certain
statistical law – a Gaussian (normal) distribution. Random errors are
indefiniteness of result introduced by finite precision of measurement.
Random errors cause scatter in the test result.
Systematic errors may be corrected by calibration. Random errors are
revealed by repeated measurements Random errors remain even after
systematic errors are substantially reduced or accounted for. Random
errors are real concern only in measurement requiring a high degree of
accuracy.
 Accuracy versus Precision (shooting at a target)
Not accurate or Precise Precise but NOT accurate

Accurate AND Precise

Accurate and NOT Precise

Accurate: relatively free from systematic errors. Accuracy determines how close the result
comes to the true value. Defined as the difference between a measurement reading and
the true value of that measurement.
Precise: small random error. Precision is a measure of how closely the result is determined,
without reference to true value. Defined as the ability to repeat the same accurate
measurement over time.
 Accuracy vs. Precision

Good accuracy Poor accuracy Poor accuracy

Good precision Good precision Poor precision

Random errors: Systematic errors:

reduce precision reduce accuracy
 Normal (Gaussian) Distributions
Any summation of a large number of random
variables results in a Gaussian distribution.
Chapter 21

Probabilities associated with the normal distribution

8
 Precision & Bias Error

Accuracy of an instrument can be improved by calibration, but

not beyond precision. Accuracy therefore includes precision but
the converse is not necessarily true.
 Definitions
Range: The region between the limits within which a quantity is
measured, received or transmitted, expressed by stating the
lower and upper range values. For example
0 to 150 deg C,
-20 to 200 deg C.
Span: The algebraic difference between the upper and lower
values. For example for
0 to 150 deg C, span =150 deg C
-20 to 200 deg C, span =220 deg C.

Accuracy rating: Accuracy rating can be specified in a number of

forms-
As percentage of span : ±0.5% of span (or full scale (F.S.))
As percentage of upper range value : ±0.5% of upper range value
As percentage of actual output reading : ±0.5% of reading
 Definitions
Sensitivity: is the change in the output per unit change in the input
• A calibration curve is obtained by plotting the output vs. the
input (y vs. x)
• In the case of a linear calibration curve, the sensitivity is the slope
of the (straight) line (also called Static Sensitivity)
• Dynamic sensitivity : dy/dx
Threshold
The lowest value of a measured quantity that a given instrument or
controller responds to effectively.
Resolution
The smallest increment of change that can be measured.
Dead band
The largest range through which an input signal may reverse
direction without initiating observable change in output signal.
 Definitions

Repeatability
The closeness of agreement among
a number of consecutive
measurements of the output for the
same value of the input under the
same operating conditions,
approaching from the same
direction, for full range traverses. It
is usually measured as a
nonrepeatability and expressed as
repeatability in percent of span. It
does not include hysteresis.
 Definitions

Drift
An undesired change in output over a period of time.

Reproducibility
The closeness of agreement among repeated measurements of the
output for the same value of input made under the same operating
conditions over a period of time, approaching from both directions.
Reproducibility includes hysteresis, dead band, drift and
repeatability.
Hysteresis:
That property of an element evidenced by the dependence of the
value of the output, for a given excursion of the input, on the history
of prior excursions and the direction of the traverse.
 Definitions
Linearity
The closeness to which a curve approximates a straight line. It is
usually measured as a nonlinearity and expressed as linearity; e.g., a
maximum deviation between an average curve and a straight line.
The average curve is determined after making two or more full range
traverses in each direction. As a performance specification, linearity
should be expressed as independent linearity, terminal based
linearity, or zero-based linearity.
 Types of Errors

• Hysteresis Error
• Linearity Error
• Sensitivity Error
• Zero Shift (null) Error
• Repeatability Error
 Overall Instrument Error

• An estimate of the overall instrument error is

made based on all known errors
• For M known errors, the instrument error ec is
given by

ec = [e21 + e22 + e23 + . . . + e2M ]1/2

• For an instrument having known hysteresis,

linearity, sensitivity and repeatability errors, the
instrument error is estimated by

ec = [e2h + e2L + e2K + e2R ]1/2

 Analog and digital devices

• Analog signal
• Varies smoothly
and continuously
• Example: glass
thermometer
• Digital signal
• Varies in a step-wise
manner
• Example: thermometer with
digital display
• 10011010=154
 Analog Architectures
Plant Syst 1 Plant Syst 2 Plant Syst 3 Plant Syst n

HSI

Logic

Instrumentation
 Digital Architectures
Plant Syst 1 Plant Syst 2 Plant Syst 3 Plant Syst n

HSI

Logic

Instrumentation
 Sensors, Transducers and Transmitters
Sensor is a generic name for a device that senses either the absolute value or
change in a physical quantity such as temperature, pressure, flow rate and
converts that change into a useful input signal for an information gathering
system. A sensor is in contact with process and as such it is a primary
transducer.
A transducer converts the physical phenomenon to an electrical signal.
Generally transducer produces a low level electrical signal which cannot be
"transmitted" any significant distance without degradation. A transmitter
provides a conditioned output signal which is suitable for transmission. A
pressure transmitter always has a transducer internally, whether it's
peizoelectric or capacitive or inductive. A temperature transmitter has
thermocouple or RTD and converts the low EMF of a thermocouple or the
resistance of an RTD to a conditioned output signal suitable for transmission.
Typical analog transmitter outputs are 4-20 mA or 0-10 VDC(electrical
transmitters), 3-15 psi (pneumatic transmitters). Digital transmitters
(fieldbus/wireless) transmit digital signals based on specific protocol.
 FLOW SHEET/PFD AND P&ID
The flow sheet or process flow diagram (PFD) is a simplified or
conceptual design schematic of the process/ system. The flow
diagram uses symbols to represent equipment and interconnecting
piping of the entire system. Individual instruments are rarely
represented in a PFD, because the focus of the diagram is
the process itself.
P&ID (Process and Instrumentation Diagrams (or sometimes called
Piping & Instrumentation Diagram) is like a flow diagram as it
uses symbols but the P&ID contains more detailed information
about the equipment; such as pipe fittings and all instrumentation
including sensors or actuators. Pipe sizes are shown with text
alongside the line. In P&ID, unlike in Flow Sheet, each pipe
including minor piping such as overflow, drain lines, bypasses etc.
are identified.
 Instrumentation in P&ID
In addition to the mechanical components, P&ID include
instruments, signal modifiers, controllers, and their inter-
relationships. The P&ID should show the sensor, the type of
input or output, the final indications or selections necessary to be
seen on the control room operator’s panel, and the presence of an
interlock if applicable. A P&ID shows the process with
instruments superimposed on the diagram showing what
gets measured and what gets controlled. Here, one can
view the flow of the process as well as the “flow” of
information between instruments measuring and controlling
the process.
P&ID gives a name ("tag") to each sensor and actuator, along
with additional parameters. This tag identifies a "point" not only
on the screens and controllers, but also on the objects in the field.
 P&ID
The P&ID mixes pneumatic / hydraulic elements, electrical elements
and instruments on the same diagram

It uses a set of standard symbols.

Examples of symbols:

pipe
350 kW heater
valve

one-way valve (diode) vessel / reactor

binary (or solenoid) valve (on/off)

analog valve (continuous)

heat exchanger
pump
 Loop diagrams, hook-ups diagrams, Control Schemes
Instrument personnel is interested in the interconnections of
individual instruments, including the wire numbers, terminal
numbers, cable types, instrument calibration ranges, etc. The
proper form of diagram for these detail is called a loop
diagram. Here, the process vessels and piping are rarely
represented, because the focus of the diagram is the
instruments themselves.
For showing instrument connection to process, hook-up
diagrams are used which show instruments to process
connections using impulse lines and connectors/fittings but
no wiring details as in loop diagrams.
Control Schemes are used to document the control logic or
strategy of a control system to control final control elements.
Here emphasis is placed on the logic or algorithms used to
control a process, as opposed to piping, wiring, or instrument
 SYMBOLS
It is necessary to have a uniform system for designating the equipment
and measures in P&ID and all plant documents.
For PFBR there is a document “Symbols, Abbreviation and Coding
Procedure for Equipment and Measured Variables” listing all the
symbols. This procedure lays down symbols that are to be used while
preparing process flow diagrams as well as piping and instrumentation
diagrams in order to represent the major requirements of plant.
Symbols are classified into 3 groups –
Mechanical (IS 3232 : 1999 Recommendations on Graphical Symbols
for Process Flow Diagrams, Piping and Instrumentation Diagrams)
Electrical (IS 12032 : Part 1 to 13 : 1987/IEC 617-1 : 1985 Graphical
symbols for diagrams in the field of electrotechnology)
Instrumentation (ISA-5.1-1983 (Revised 1992) Graphic Symbols for
Distributed Control/Shared Display Instrumentation, Logic, and
Computer Systems)
Remaining symbols are adopted as in FBTR.
Deciphering instrumentation symbols: Different types of graphical elements
are defined—discrete instruments, shared control/display, computer function, and
programmable logic controller—and grouped into three location categories (primary,
auxiliary, and field mounted). Discrete instruments are indicated by circular elements.
Shared control/display elements are circles surrounded by a square. Logic functions are
are indicated by a rotated square(diamond) inside a square. Adding a single horizontal
bar indicates the function resides in the primary location. A double line indicates an
auxiliary location, and no line places the device or function in the field. Devices
located behind a panel-board are shown with a dashed horizontal line. Abbreviations of
the user's choice may be used when necessary to specify location.
Auxiliary
Primary location
location
accessible to Field mounted
accessible to
operator
operator
Discrete
instruments
Shared
display,
shared
control

Logic control
 Common signal lines
Connection to process, or
instrument supply
Pneumatic signal

Electric signal
Capillary tubing (filled
system)
Hydraulic signal
Electromagnetic or sonic
signal (guided)
Internal system link
(software or digital data link)
Source: Control Engineering with data from ISA S5.1 standard
Signal lines
 Piping and Instrumentation Diagram for MTG100FC Engine Tests
P&ID example
TI 7, Heat
TC1M1 - M10 exchanger
IC Chimney
TI TI TI TI
IGNITC1
TA22C TA22A TA21C TA21A
Ingnitor
TI PI BS TI PI
Box C1 TI TI
FLAMDETC1 TE TE
TA22B PT22 TA21B PT21 TA62
10 x TW72
TE
TE TE TE PT BE TE TE TE PT
6, Recuperator

3, SOFC Inlet 2, Air Heater C1

IC
IC
VMPWMC1
VPPWMC1 Rotary block valve
Atmosphere
S IC PI
S PT
V52 PT12
IC
S

From sample probe at

SVGAS3 TI
FO TE
S S TA12

C1 exit
IC IC
SVGAS1 SVGAS2
Latchable
MFM PI Check Valve
Fuel flow C1 Emission PT
S S Analysis PT52
IC
S
Fuel Supply TI V12
E TE
AIT TA52
EMICO2 R
Fuel flow C2 MFM
E
AIT
EMIO2 SI PI
Process Air Exhaust SPEED LOP
E
AIT
EMINOX
IC IC
VMPWMC2 VPPWMC2 E ST PT
AIT AC Grid
Regulator Valve Blow Off Valve EMICO
S S
IC IC E
TBVCOOL TBVDEP AIT 5, 1,
EMIUHC G PCS
T C
I I FO
P P S
TY TY

IC PI
IGNITC2 PT Modulatable
PT02
Load
Ingnitor
Box TI TI TI
TE
TA51A TA51C TA02
TI TI
TI
TA32A TA32C PI TI
TC2M1 - M10

0, Air Inlet
TI PI BS PT51 TA51B
TA32B PT32 FLAMDETC2
10 x PT TE TE TE
BE TE
TE TE TE PT

3, SOFC Outlet 4, Combustor C2

 Instrumentation identification
The first letter defines the measured or initiating variables such as Analysis (A), Flow (F),
Temperature (T), etc. with succeeding letters defining readout, passive, or output
functions such as Indicator (I), Record (R), Transmit (T), and so forth

FIC
V1528

tag name of the

mover corresponding
(here: solenoid) variable

function Letter and number combinations appear inside each

(here: valve) graphical element and letter combinations are defined by
the ISA standard. Numbers are user assigned and
schemes use either sequential numbering, or instrument
number tied to the process line number, or adopt unique
numbering systems.
 The output of FIC 101 is an electrical signal to TY 101
located in an inaccessible or behind-the-panel-board location.

TIC 101’s output is

connected via an internal
Square root extraction of the software or data link (line
input signal is part of FIC with bubbles) to the
101’s functionality. setpoint (SP) of FIC 101 to
form a cascade control
FT101 is a field-mounted strategy
flow transmitter connected
via electrical signals (dotted
line) to flow indicating TT 101 and TIC 101 are
controller FIC 101 located in similar to FT 101 and FIC
a shared control/display 101
device but are measuring,
The output signal from TY indicating, and controlling
101 is a pneumatic signal temperature
(line with double forward
slash marks)
making TY 101 an I/P
(current to pneumatic
transducer)
 The ISA code
for instrument
type
The ISA code for instrument type