Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
Week 2
TSR 3013
Discussion Topics
Research problems
Quantitative research problems
TSR 3013
Research Problems
TSR 3013
Research Problems
A general research problem
The purpose of this study is to investigate the attitudes of
high school students to mandated drug testing programs
Specific statements and questions
This study examines the differences between males’ and
females’ attitudes toward mandated high school drug
testing programs.
What are the differences between freshmen, sophomore,
junior, and senior students’ attitudes toward mandated high
school drug testing programs?
TSR 3013
Research Problems
TSR 3013
Research Problems
TSR 3013
Research Problems
Sources of research problems
Personal interests and experiences
The use of formative tests in a statistics class
The use of technology in a research class
Deductions from theory
The effectiveness of math manipulatives
The effectiveness of a mastery approach to
learning
research
TSR 3013
Research Problems
Sources of research problems
Replication of studies
Checking the findings of a major study
Checking the validity of research findings with different
subjects
Checking trends or changes over time
Checking important findings using different
methodologies
Clarification of contradictory results
TSR 3013
Quantitative Research
Problems
TSR 3013
Quantitative Research
Problems
Variables
A variable is a label of name that represents
a concept or characteristic that varies (e.g.,
gender, weight, achievement, attitudes
toward inclusion, etc.)
Conceptual and operational definitions of
variables
TSR 3013
Quantitative Research
Problems
Conceptual and operational definitions of
variables
Conceptual (i.e., constitutive) definition: the use of
words or concepts to define a variable
Achievement: what one has learned from formal
instruction
Aptitude: one’s capability for performing a particular
task or skill
Operational definition: an indication of the meaning of
a variable through the specification of the manner by
which it is measured, categorized, or controlled
A test score
Income levels above and below $45,000 per year
The use of holistic or phonetic
TSR 3013 language instruction
Quantitative Research
Problems
TSR 3013
Quantitative Research
Problems
Independent and dependent (i.e., cause and
effect)
Independent variables act as the “cause” in that they
precede, influence, and predict the dependent variable
Dependent variables act as the effect in that they
change as a result of being influenced by an
independent variable
Examples
The effect of two instructional approaches (independent
variable) on student achievement (dependent variable)
The use of SAT scores (independent variable) to predict
freshman grade point averages (dependent variable)
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Quantitative Research
Problems
Extraneous and confounding variables
Extraneous variables are those that affect the
dependent variable but are not controlled adequately
by the researcher
Not controlling for the key-boarding skills of students
in a
study of computer-assisted instruction
Confounding variables are those that vary
systematically with the independent variable and
exert influence of the dependent variable
Not using counselors with similar levels of experience
in a study comparing the effectiveness of two
counseling approaches
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Quantitative Research
Problems
Continuous and categorical variables
Continuous variables are measured on a scale
that theoretically can take on an infinite number of
values
Test scores range from a low of 0 to a high of 100
Attitude scales that range from very negative at 0 to
very positive at 5
Students’ ages
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Quantitative Research
Problems
Continuous and categorical variables
Categorical variables are measured and assigned to
groups on the basis of specific characteristics
Examples
Gender: male and female
Socio-economic status: low middle, and high
The term level is used to discuss the groups or
categories
Gender has two levels - male and female
Socio-economic status has three levels - low, middle, and
high
TSR 3013
Quantitative Research
Problems
Continuous and categorical variables
Continuous variables can be converted to categorical
variables, but categorical variables cannot be converted to
continuous variables
IQ is a continuous variable, but the researcher can choose
to group students into three levels based on IQ scores -
low is below a score of 84, middle is between 85 and 115,
and high is above 116
Test scores are continuous, but teachers typically assign
letter grades on a ten point scale (i.e., at or below 59 is
an F, 60 to 69 is a D, 70 to 79 is a C, 80-89 is a B, and
90 to 100 is an A
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Quantitative Research
Problems
Hypotheses
Hypotheses are tentative statements of the
expected relationships between two or more
variables
There is a significant positive relationship between
self-concept and math achievement
The class using math manipulatives will show
significantly higher levels of math achievement
than the class using a traditional algorithm
approach
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Quantitative Research
Problems
Reasons for using hypotheses
To provide specific focus
To provide for the testing of the relationships
between variables
To direct the investigation
To allow the investigator to confirm or not confirm
relationships
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Quantitative Research
Problems
Reasons for using hypotheses
To provide a framework for reporting the results
and explanations deriving from them
When supported, provides empirical evidence of
the predictive nature of the relationships between
variables
To provide a useful framework for organizing and
summarizing the results and conclusions
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Quantitative Research
Problems
Two types of hypotheses
Inductive and deductive
Inductive hypotheses are formed through
inductively reasoning from many specific
observations to tentative explanations
Deductive hypotheses are formed through
deductively reasoning implications of theory
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Quantitative Research
Problems
Two types of hypotheses
Research or statistical
Research hypotheses are conjectural statements of
the expected results
Directional
Non-directional
Statistical hypotheses are statements of a
relationship or
difference that can be tested statistically
Null hypothesis
Alternative hypothesis
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Quantitative Research
Problems
Criteria for evaluating research hypotheses
Stated in declarative form
Consistent with known facts, prior research, or
theory
Logical extension of the research problem
States an expected relationship between two or
more variables
Can be tested
Is clear and concise
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Qualitative Research Problems
Identifies a central phenomena (i.e., an issue or
process) being investigated
Examples of issues
Drug abuse in high schools
Teacher burnout
Alienation of children with special needs
Examples of processes
How teachers change to standards-based curricula
How students react to high stakes testing programs
How students incorporate teachers’ expectations into
their
studies
TSR 3013
Quantitative Research
Problems
Criteria for evaluating quantitative
research problems
Problem is researchable
Problem is important
Problem should indicate the type of research
Problem specifies the population being
investigated
Problem specifies the variables and the
relationships between or among them
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Qualitative Research Problems
Characteristics
Includes a single, central phenomena
Open-ended
General in nature
Evolving, that is, problems change as data is
collected and reflected upon
Foreshadowed problems
Emerging and reformulated questions
Neutral with respect to what will be learned
No predictions
No expected outcomes
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Qualitative Research Problems
Criteria for evaluating qualitative research
problems
The problem should not be too general or too specific
The problem should be amenable to change as data
are collected and analyzed
The problem should not be biased with restrictive
assumptions or desired findings
The problem should be written in “how” and “what”
forms to focus on describing the phenomena
The problem should include a central question as well
as the participants and the site
TSR 3013
Ethics of Educational Research
Ethical considerations are an important part
of research.
Researchers must be aware of and attend to
ethical considerations.
Two main overarching ethical rules guide
researchers.
Participants should not be harmed.
Researchers obtain participants’ informed
consent.
TSR 3013
Ethics of Educational Research
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Ethics of Educational Research
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Ethics of Educational Research
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Ethics of Educational Research
Researchers ensure freedom from harm
No undue risks
Personal privacy and confidentiality
Limit access of data to those who ‘need to know’
Participants’ involvement should not be reported
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Ethics of Educational
Research
Anonymity
Study participants have complete
anonymity when their identities are
unknown to the researcher.
Confidentiality
Study participants are known to
researcher but are not disclosed.
e.g., removing names from data
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Ethics of Educational Research
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Ethics of Educational Research
Deception poses an ethical dilemma. If the
participants know the purpose of a study, it
may change their behavior.
e.g., gender, race, attitudes, medical status
When a study must use deception it causes
problems for informed consent. These
types of studies must undergo strict ethical
review.
TSR 3013
Ethics of Qualitative Research
In addition to ethics of educational research
generally, qualitative research often poses
additional ethical challenges.
The nature of the research changes so informed
consent is challenging.
The close relationship between the researcher
and the participant may allow the researcher to
know personal and perhaps ill-acts of the
participant that may pose ethical challenges.
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Ethical Guideposts
A researcher should have an ethical
perspective with regard to the research
that is very close to her personal ethical
position.
Informed consent should be obtained
through a dialogue between the
researcher and the participants.
TSR 3013
Ethical Guideposts
Be cognizant of the broader social
principles that define your ethical stance.
Potential results do not drive ethical
standards.
Minimize the potential for harm to your
participants.
Attend to confidentiality and omit
deception.
TSR 3013