Overview Research

Methodology

Week 7
 Learning Outcomes
Introduction to quantitative research
1. Research philosophy (Positivism/Interpretivism)
2. Research approach (deductive/Inductive)
3. Research strategy (Survey)
4. Time Horizon (longitudinal/cross sectional)
5. Data (primary/secondary)
6. Sources and methods of data collection
7. Sampling and population (introduction)

Practical session to draw a research framework

Milestone 4:
Student should be able to complete the write-up on problem statement,
research questions, and significance.
Reference:
Saunders, M., Lewis. P & Thornhill, A. (2012) Research methods
for business students. 6th ed. Harlow: Pearson.
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 Example

Obstacles towards women moving in

leadership positions: A Quantitative study in
the Services Sector, Malaysia.
Quantitative

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 Chapter 3 Methodology
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Research Philosophy (Positivism/ Interpretivism)
3.3 Research Approach (deductive/Inductive)
3.4 Research Strategy (Survey/case study)
3.5 Choices (Qualitative/quantitative)
3.6 Time Horizon (longitudinal/cross sectional)
3.7 Data (primary/secondary)
3.8 Instrumentation/ Questionnaire
3.9 Sources of Data collection Interview/internet)
3.10 Sampling
3.11 Ethical Considerations
3.12 Data processing – coding/editing/transferring
3.13 Data Analysis/Data Validity and reliability
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 Research Methodology & Method
• Methodology is the study of methods and refers
to the strategy or approach to research.
• Method is a specific technique (or set of
techniques) for data collection

Research design is a blueprint or plan for the collection,

measurement, and analysis of data, created to answer
your research questions (Sekaran & Bougie, 2015)

Research design is a logical set of procedures that

researchers use to collect, analyze, and report their data
in a research study- Cresswell
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 Components Addressed in Research
Methodology
The term methodology refers to 1. Research Design
the overall approaches & 2. Participants/Sample
perspectives to the research 3. Instruments/
process as a whole and is Questionnaire
concerned with the following
main issues: 4. Procedures/Data
Collection
• Why you collected certain data 5. Limitations
• What data you collected 6. Editing, Coding and
• Where you collected it Tabulation of data
• How you collected it
7. Data Analysis &
• How you analyzed it
(Collis & Hussey, 2003, p.55). Anticipated
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Outcomes
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set of procedures that researchers use to Research Design Saunders et al, (2009)
collect, analyze, and report their data

Figure 5.1 The research ‘onion’

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The research ‘onion’Title of Slides Dr Jugindar Singh
 Philosophy: Cresswell
A general philosophical orientation about
the world and the nature of research that a
researcher brings to a study – Cresswell

Research process is based on assumptions about

the sources and the nature of knowledge.

Lead to embracing a qualitative, quantitative, or mixed

methods approach
“a basic set of beliefs that guide action” (Guba, 1990)
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 Philosophy: Saunders
Philosophy
‘Research philosophy is an over-arching term relating to the
development of knowledge and the nature of that knowledge’

What you are doing when embarking on research – developing

knowledge in a particular field

Philosophy you adopt contains important assumptions about the

way in which you view the world.
Eg: Concerned with Feelings and attitudes OR Facts
Your particular view of the relationship between knowledge and
the process by which it is developed.
-Adapted from Saunders et al, (2009)
Quantitative and qualitative research methods involve very different assumptions
about
Module how
Code and research should be conducted
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Title of Slides
The interrelationship between the building blocks of research

Ontology Epistemology Methodology Methods Sources

What’s out What and how How can Which precise Which data
there to can we know we go about procedures Can we
know? about it? acquiring that can we use to collect?
The study Knowledge knowledge? acquire it?
of what’s what is
‘out there’, assumed to
what exists, exist can be
what’s real. known‟
(Blaikie, 2000 (Daniel & Harland, 2017, p.36 – after Grix, 2002)

Philosophy ASK A SERIES OF QUESTIONS

• Where is the researcher coming from?

• What assumptions does s/he make? (The answer is never “none.”)
Cresswell
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 Philosophy:
i.e. the way in which you choose to investigate the world

Two main schools are positivism and

Interpretivism/constructionism:

• Positivists believe that the best way to investigate the world is

through objective methods, such as observations.
Objectivtive Facts

• Interpretivism believe that reality does not exist by itself.

Instead, it is constructed and given meaning by people. Their
focus is therefore on feelings, beliefs and thoughts, and how
people communicate these.. Subjective .. Feelings and
attitudes
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 Philosophies
1. Positivism: Believes in the possibility to observe and describe reality
from an objective viewpoint
– Cause and effect/Scientific method
– Experimentation and measurement can reveal objective reality
– Strive for objectivity
– Start with hypothesis and test
Eg: Relationship bet. student’s financial position and academic
performance.

2. Interpretivism/Constructivism: Interpreted by the individual according

to his or her ideological positions
– Reality is subjective and multiple
– Seek to understand meaning as experienced by participants
– Meaning of events is mediated by interactions with others, and social
and cultural context
– Start with open-ended inquiry and result in hypothesis
Eg: A study of effective management among female managers

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 Philosophies

3. Pragmatism: argues that both

constructivism and objectivism are valid
ways
– Analogue of mixed-method strategy
– Mixes aspects of other worldviews to get at
“what works”
– Believe in objective reality (as with
empiricists), but acknowledge context is
inescapable (as per constructivists)

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 Research Approach
Deductive Reasoning
• Starts with a general rule
(a theory) which we
know to be true.
• Then, from that rule, we
make a true conclusion
about something
specific.
• The process of
reasoning from known
facts to conclusions.

Begins with theory and hypotheses, 14

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 Inductive Approach Induction: building theory
• Inductive means that
you are researching
to create theory.
• The process of going
from observations to
conclusions.
The process moves in the
opposite direction to the
deductive approach taking
its focus from the working
title of the researcher not
the existing theory

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 Research Strategies
A research strategy usually has
♦ A goal: something it can be used for
♦ A procedure: steps to follow to achieve results
♦ A set of techniques involved in the procedures

Experiment Action research

Grounded theory Survey

Ethnography Case study

Phenomenology
Archival research
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 Research Strategies - Survey
A Survey collects information
A survey is a system for collecting information from or
about people to describe, compare, or explain their
knowledge, attitudes, and behavior (Fink, 2003).

A survey strategy is often associated with a

quantitative method using a questionnaire

Collecting large amounts of data from a Sample to

address the who, what, where, when and how of any
given topic or issue
Example: Surveys of consumer decision making, customer
satisfaction, job satisfaction, the use of health services,
management information systems,
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 Experiment
Goal: The purpose of the experimental research strategy is to establish the
existence of a cause- and- effect relationship between two variables

How: To accomplish this goal, an experiment manipulates one variable while a

second variable is measured and other variables are controlled.

Example: To study the impact of amount of light on productivity of

employees

Manipulation : Manipulate the amount of lighting (intervention)

Measurement : Obtain a set of scores in productivity of employees for each level
of lighting each treatment condition.

Control of all other variables

Experiment: measuring the effects of manipulating

one variable on another variable Saunders et al. 2009
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 Case study
Case studies focus on collecting information
about a specific object, event or activity, such as
a particular business unit or organization.

Example: Case study of discipline in a

school

Case study: development of detailed, intensive knowledge

about a single ‘case’, or of a small number of related ‘cases’.
Saunders et al. 2009
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 Case study
• Case study design involves extensive study of
one or more individuals or cases in a real life
context

• Examines the characteristics of a particular

entity, phenomenon, or person
“Case study is a strategy for doing research which
involves an empirical investigation of a particular
contemporary phenomenon with its real life
context using multiple sources of evidence.” Yin,
1981

Case study: development of detailed, intensive knowledge

about a single ‘case’, or of a small number of related ‘cases’.
Saunders et al. 2009
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 Case Study
• Provides a rich understanding of a real life context
• Uses and triangulates multiple sources of data
Case Study: key features
Methods
Provides a rich understanding of a real life • Documentation
context • Interviews
• Observation
Uses and triangulates multiple sources of • ...and Others
data (Survey, Artifacts,
etc.)
A case study can be categorized in four
ways and based on two dimensions: • Why multiple?
...Triangulation
• single case v. multiple case
• holistic case v. embedded case
Yin (2003)
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 Action research
Research initiated to solve an immediate problem or reflective
process of progressive problem solving led by individuals working
with others in teams
Example: How to decrease the incidence of absenteeism in class

There are two types of action research:

1. Participatory (involvement of practitioners)
2. Practical (address a specific problem)
An action research strategy's purpose is to solve a particular
problem and to produce guidelines for best practice
(Denscombe, 2010)
An iterative process that…
• involves the practitioners in the study of their environment;
• allows them to study problems, issues and/or challenges
• leads to some action. The result is an ACTION PLAN
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 Action research
Example: How to decrease the incidence of absenteeism in class
1. Action research is sometimes undertaken by consultants who want to
initiate change processes in organizations.

2. Action research is a research strategy aimed at effecting planned

changes.

3. Researcher begins with a problem that is already identified, and gathers

relevant data to provide a tentative problem solution.
4. This solution is then implemented, with the knowledge that there may
be unintended consequences following such implementation.

5. The effects are then evaluated, defined, and diagnosed, and the
research continues on an ongoing basis until the problem is fully
resolved.
Thus, action research is a constantly evolving project with interplay
among problem, solution, effects or consequences, and new solution.
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 Grounded theory
Grounded Theory is an approach for developing theory that
is "grounded in data systematically gathered and
analyzed" (Strauss & Corbin, 1994).
• Helps to predict and explain behaviour
• Develops theory from data generated by observations
• Is an interpretative process, not a logico-deductive one

Tools: theoretical sampling, coding, and constant comparison

Theoretical sampling - “the process of data collection for

generating theory whereby the analyst jointly collects, codes, and
analyzes the data and decides what data to collect next and
where to find them, in order to develop his theory as it emerges”
(Glaser & Strauss, 1967)

Researcher attempts to derive a general, abstract theory of a

process. action, or interaction grounded in the views of
participants in a study. Cresswell 2009
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 Ethnography
Inductive approach

• Aims to describe and explain the social world inhabited by

the researcher
• Takes place over an extended time period
• Involves extended participant observation such as studying
gorillas in their natural habitat
Ethnography is rooted in anthropology, which is the study of others from a
detached point-of view.
However, ethnography requires the researcher to be a part of the community or
situation they are researching

Ethnography is the study of human behavior in its most natural and typical
context

Ethnography: Derives from the field of anthropology. The

idea is to interpret the social world the research subject
inhabits and the way in which they interpret it.
Saunders et al. 2009
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 Research Strategies
Archival research
• Uses administrative records and documents as
the principal sources of data

• Allows research questions focused on the past

• Is constrained by the nature of the records and

documents
Saunders et al. 2009
Example: historical research
This strategy centers its data collection on existing data sets or archive
documents.
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 Phenomenology
• Focus: reveal the meaning of the lived
experience from the perspective of participants
• Describe the essences of lived experience
• Inquiry is what people experience in regard to some
phenomenon or other and how they interpret those
experiences.
Example:
1. Impact of leadership style on employee motivation in an
organization: A phenomenological study.
(employees interviewed on their experiences)
2. A Phenomenological Study of the Experiences of employees
with Disabilities
Study that attempts to understand people's perceptions, perspectives
and understandings of a particular situation (or phenomenon).
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 Research choices
1. Quantitative
2. Qualitative
3. Mixed Method

Saunders et al, (2009)

Figure 5.4 Research choices

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Qualitative vs. Quantitative Analysis
■ Quantitative research: Predictive
♦ focuses on verifying hypotheses using typically
large amounts of data. Numerical data

■ Qualitative research: Exploratory

♦ focuses on understanding the important
characteristics of typically small samples of data
Data in words or voice
Example: investigate employees absenteeism
♦ quantitative approach: collect ratings, verify user
responses (numerical)
♦ qualitative approach: understand why employees absent
(words, voice)
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 TIME HORIZON: CROSS-SECTIONAL VERSUS
LONGITUDINAL STUDIES
Cross-Sectional Studies
A study can be done in which data are gathered just once,
perhaps over a period of days or weeks or months, in order to
answer a research question.
Example: Data were collected from customers just once to
study their satisfaction level.

Longitudinal Studies
The researcher might want to study people or phenomena at
more than one point in time in order to answer the research
question.
Eg: To study employees‘ behavior before and after a change in
the top management, so as to know what effects the change
accomplished. Data are gathered at two different points in time.

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 Types of Data
PRIMARY DATA:
Data originated by a researcher for the specific
purpose of addressing the research problem.
Included among primary sources are interviews,
speeches etc

SECONDARY DATA:
Data that is collected from secondary sources such as
reports, newspapers etc

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 Sources of Data
Primary data Secondary data
Data you collect Data someone else has
collected
1. Surveys
Sources.
2. Focus groups 1. Internal company Records
3. Questionnaires 2. Company reports
4. Personal 3. Internal computer databases
4. Reports and publications of
interviews government agencies
5. Experiments 5. Other publications.
6. Observational 6. Computerized databases.
The data for the research work is
study collected from source like EBSCO,
PROQUEST, Emerald
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Instrumentation/ Questionnaire
Questionnaires are a popular means of collecting data.
Describe the questionnaire used in the study

1. Is it original? If any items are taken from existing questionnaire,

identify the sources (adopted/adapted)

3. The structure and the question categories (demographic/rating

questions)

4. Describe the scaling methods used and state the reasons for
choosing them

5. Issues on validity and reliability

6. Was Pilot test done to check the clarity and appropriateness of

the survey questionnaire
Remember: Questions are ADOPTED or ADAPTED
(Attach
Module a sample
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Instrumentation/ Questionnaire
Section A is aimed to obtain the
general information and demographic
data of the respective respondents,
nominal scale is used to measure the
most appropriate answers for the
respective respondents.

In Section B, the interval scale was

used as the main scale of
measurement. The 5-points of Likert
scale were used for the questions in
Section B which allow the
respondents to identify whether they are
(1) Strongly Agree, (2) Agree, (3)
Neutral, (4) Disagree and (5) Strongly
Disagree with the statements.

The questions were adapted……..

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 Use of questionnaires

Types of questionnaire

Saunders et al. (2009)

Figure 11.1 Types of questionnaire

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 Sources and Methods of Data
collection
1. Describe how the questionnaire was administered and discuss
problems encountered
• Internet- or intranet-mediated,
• postal,
• delivery and collection,
• telephone
• interview

2. State the steps in data collection ie:

• What method was used
• How many questionnaires/respondents
• How was the response rate and follow up

If pilot testing was done, state the reliability and validity testing
results and what amendments done to questionnaire
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 Data Collection: Qualitative vs Quantitative
Approaches
Qualitative
• Focus Group
• Interview
• Case Study
• Participant observation
• Secondary data analysis
Quantitative
• Surveys
• Experiments
• Structured observation
• Secondary data analysis
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 Observation
• Intensive, usually long term, examination of a social
group, an organization, etc.

• Researcher becomes a participant in the lives of

group members
– Observes their behavior and learns meaning systems
(which are tied to language)

• Most closely associated with Ethnography, as

developed in Classical Anthropology

See what is happening

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 Interviews
• Unstructured – e.g. ethnographic interviewing – researcher
allows interview to proceed at respondent’s pace and subjects
to vary by interviewee (to an extent)

• Semi-structured – Asks same general set of questions

(predominantly open-ended). Further probing

• Structured – Precisely worded questions.

Everyone asked exactly the same questions in exactly the
same way, given exactly the same choices
Type of interview to use
• Individual
• Focus group
• Telephone
• e-mail
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 Focus group
 A small group of people are • A type of group
brought together to discuss interview.
• Focuses on group
specific topics of interest to the interaction on a
researcher. topic selected by
the researcher.
 The group process tends to elicit • Ideally 4- 12
participants.
more information than • The interaction is
directed by a
individual interviews because moderator who asks
there is cross-conversation and questions and
keeps the
discussion. discussion on the
 Different views can be explored. topic.

40
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 Surveys
• A survey involves data
collection from a large number
of respondents using a
predesigned questionnaire.
• Four basic survey methods:
– Telephone survey
– Self Administered – mail/e-mail
– Person-administered surveys
(distribute and collect)

– Website eg: Google Form

41
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 Sampling
1- Defining the population:
Sampling begin with precisely defining the target population.
Ensure the qualification criteria is right

2- Determining the sample frame:

The sampling frame is a representation of all the elements in the
population from whish the sample is drawn.

3- Determining the sampling design: ( Two types )

Probability sampling, the elements in the population have some
known probability of being selected as sample subject.
Non probability sampling, the elements do not have a known
chance of being selected as sample subject.

4- Sample size
Sample size to represent the population

Quantitative: 70-100 respondents (agree with Supervisor)

Qualitative : 5-10 (agree with Supervisor)
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Dr Jugindar Singh
 Barriers towards Entrepreneurship Inclination: A
quantitative study among APU students

STUDY POPULATION
• Population : All APU students
10,000

• Sampling Frame: A list of

elements from which the sample
may be drawn
1,000 SAMPLE

• Sample : Subset of a larger

population
100

TARGET POPULATION
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 Ethical Considerations

Ethics are the norms or standards for conduct that

distinguish between right and wrong.

They help to determine the difference between

acceptable and unacceptable behaviors.

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 Rights & Obligations of Subject

• Right to informed consent

• Obligation to be truthful
• Right to privacy
• Right to confidentiality
• Right to no harm
• Right to be informed

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 Rights & Obligations of Researcher

• Ethical conduct
• Obligation to reduce bias
• Do not misrepresent data
• Privacy
• Commitment to research
• Plagiarism
• Falsification

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 Data Processing
coding/editing/transferring
1. State editing, coding and tabulating the data
2. What program was used?

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 Overview of the Stages of Data Analysis

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 Editing, coding and tabulation
• Editing Data
The process of checking and adjusting responses in the completed
questionnaires for omissions, legibility, and consistency and readying
them for coding and storage
• CODING
The process of identifying and classifying each answer with a numerical
score or other character symbol. Usually a number to each response
If male=1 and if female=2
• TABULATION
Tabulation is the process of summarizing raw data and displaying the
same in compact form (i.e., in the form of statistical table) for further
analysis
• Data Transformation
Converting some of the data from the format in which they were
entered to a format most suitable for particular statistical analysis.
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 Data Analysis
In data analysis we have three objectives:
1. getting a feel for the data,
2. testing the goodness of data, and
3. testing the hypotheses developed for the
research.

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 Data Analysis – Uma Sekaran

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 THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
• Conceptual model of how one theorizes or
makes logical sense of the relationships
among the several factors that have been
identified as important to the problem

• A good theoretical framework

– identifies and labels the important variables in the
situation that are relevant to the problem defined.
– It logically describes the interconnections among
these variables.
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A STUDY OF CUSTOMER SATISFACTION TOWARDS
SERVICE QUALITY IN AIRASIA MALAYSIA

Example
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 Tutorial
1. Working in groups, read the attached
sample of research (or any other past
research) and explain the
methodology used.

• Research philosophy
• Research Approach
• Research Purpose
• Research
State strategy Methodology
your Research
• Choice of research
• Time Horizon
• Population and sampling
• Instruments/Questionnaire
• Procedures/Data Collection
• Data Analysis
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 Tutorial
1. Working in groups, read the attached
sample of research (or any other past
research) and explain the
methodology used.

• Research philosophy
• Research Approach
• Research Purpose
• Research
State strategy Methodology
your Research
• Choice of research
• Time Horizon
• Population and sampling

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