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e2
V (r p re ) ,
4 0 r p re
so Schrödinger’s equation depends on rp and re , i.e. on six
coordinates:
2 2 2 2 e2
i p e (rp , re , t ) .
t 2m p
2me 40 r p re
me re m p r p
Let r = re – rp and R ; then Schrödinger’s
me m p
equation becomes
2 2
e 2
i R
2
r
2
,
t 2(me m p ) 2 40 r
me m p
where is called the reduced mass. For a proton
me m p
and an electron, the reduced mass is essentially the electron
mass, since mp ≈ 2000 me. But for a positronium atom (which
has a positron in the place of the proton), μ = me /2.
Schrödinger’s equation for the hydrogen atom
me re m p r p
Let r = re – rp and R ; then Schrödinger’s
me m p
equation becomes
2 2
e 2
i R
2
r
2
,
t 2(me m p ) 2 40 r
me m p
where is called the reduced mass. There are
me m p
solutions of the form Ψ = T(t)χ(R)ψ(r), where T(t) is the usual
time dependence and χ(R) is a solution to the free Schrödinger
equation in R (the center-of-mass coordinate), which has no
potential term.
Schrödinger’s equation for the hydrogen atom
2 2 e2
Eψ( r) r ψ ,
2 4 0 r
2 2 L ˆ2
Eψ(r , , ) r 2 ψ V (r )ψ .
2 r r
2m r
e2
We replace m by μ and V(r) by :
4 0 r
2 2 L ˆ2 e2
Eψ(r , , ) r ψ ψ ,
2r 2 r r 2 4 0 r
where ˆ 2Y m l (l 1) 2Y m ,
L l l
Lˆ zYlm m Ylm .
Eigenvalues and eigenstates
2 2 e2
ER(r ) r l (l 1) R(r ) R(r ) .
2r 2 r r 4 0 r
4 0 2
a0 0.529 Å 5.29 10 11 m .
e 2
Eigenvalues and eigenstates
e 4 13 .6 eV
En ,
4 0
2 2 2
2 n n 2
e 4 13 .6 eV
En ,
4 0 2 2 2
2 n n 2
2
Answer: 1 ψ nlm (r, , ) r 2 sin d d dr .
Eigenvalues and eigenstates
2
Answer: 1 ψ n00 (r , , ) r 2 sin d d dr
2
Rn0 (r )
4
r 2 (4 ) dr
2
Rn0 (r ) r 2 dr .
Eigenvalues and eigenstates
Radius (a0)
Radial eigenfunctions Rnl(r) Pnl(r)
Rnl(r) and probability
distributions Pnl(r) for
the lowest eigenstates
of the hydrogen atom.
From here.
Answer: On a sphere
of radius r, we have
Pn0(r) = r2 |Rn0(r)|2.
Radius (a0)
For a single electron bound by a nucleus containing Z protons,
the solutions of Schrödinger’s equation are almost unchanged;
the reduced mass μ is even closer to me, while the potential
term is
Ze 2
V (r p re ) .
4 0 r p re
( Ze 2 ) 2 2 13.6 eV
E Z .
n 40 2 n
2 2 2
n 2
Exercise: Show that the energy of the ground state is half the
expectation value of the potential energy in the ground state.
Exercise: Show that the energy of the ground state is half the
expectation value of the potential energy in the ground state.
e4
Solution: The ground state energy is E1 .
4 0 2
2 2
e2 e2
ψ100 (r ) 4r dr
2 2
40 r 40 r
3
1 e 2 r/a0 e 2
4r 2 dr
a0 40 r
e2 e 4
r
e rdr .
40 a0 40 2
Atomic quantum numbers
1 + 3 + 5 + … + [2(n – 1) + 1] = n2 .
e 4 1 1 15 1 1 1
2 3 2
3.3 10 s 2
2
,
2
4 0 n (n' )
3
n ( n' )
for some n and n´. This formula, derived by Bohr 13 years
before Schrödinger, was soon verified via spectroscopy.
Energy levels for hydrogen, and
transitions among the levels
Energy levels for hydrogen, and
transitions among the levels
Light from
source
The “magnetic” quantum number m:
ˆ e ˆ ˆ
VB μ B
ˆ LB .
2me
The “magnetic” quantum number m:
d dB
Fz VB z .
dz dz
d dB
Fz VB z .
dz dz
We expect the beam to split into 2l+1 beams, one for each value
of μz. In some cases, the beam indeed splits into 2l+1 beams.
Stern-Gerlach and spin
But electron spin has odd features. For example, its magnitude
never changes, just its direction – and it has only two directions.
Stern-Gerlach and spin
Lˆ x , Lˆ y , Lˆ z , and L
ˆ 2 . Consider l = 1 and m = –1, 0, 1. The
1 0 0
ˆ
Lz 0 0 0 ,
0 0 1
We have 0 a * a 0 1 Lˆ Lˆ 1
1 Lˆ x
2
Lˆ y
2
Lˆ z 1
1 Lˆ 2 Lˆ z
2
Lˆ z 1 2 2 .
Hence Lˆ 1 2 0 , up to an overall phase. Similarly, we
0 2 0
can show that Lˆ 0 2 1 , hence Lˆ 0 0 2 .
0 0 0
Stern-Gerlach and spin
0 0 0
ˆ
Similarly, L 2 0 0 . Now, since Lˆ Lˆ 2Lˆ x,
0 0
2
0 1 0
ˆ
we can write Lx 1 0 1 . Since Lˆ Lˆ 2iLˆ y ,
0 1 0 2
0 i 0
ˆ
we can write L y i 0 i .
0 i 2
0
Pauli matrices
ˆ 0 1 ˆ 0 i ˆ 1 0
S x , S y , S z .
1 0 2 i 0 2 0 1 2
(The “Pauli matrices” are these matrices without the ħ/2 factors.)
These are the operators for the components of electron spin!
Pauli matrices
ˆ 1 0
We can write the eigenstates of S z
0 1 2
1
as or for Sz = ħ/2
0
0
and as or for Sz = –ħ/2.
1
1 0 2
Since Sˆ x2 Sˆ y2 Sˆ z2 3 s(s 1) 2 for s = ½,
0 1 4
we refer to electron spin as “spin-½”.
Stern-Gerlach and spin
z
e
m .
2me
Atomic quantum numbers (again)
Solution:
2 2 2
1 1 3 3
ˆ
Lz () () ( )
5
5 5 5
2 2 2
ˆ 1 1 3
S z ( ) ( ) ( ) .
2 5 2 5 2 5 10
Exercise: Show that the superposition of wave functions
1 1 3
ψ 1 ψ 1 ψ 1
5 2,1,1, 5 2,1,1, 5 2,1,1,
2 2 2
Solution:
2 2 2
ˆ 2 1 2 1 2 3
Lz ( )
2
( ) ( ) 2
5
5 5
2
2 3 4
Lz Lˆ2z Lˆ z 2 .
5 5
Exercise: What happens in a Stern-Gerlach experiment, if each
electron in an incident beam of hydrogen atoms has l = 1?
Exercise: What happens in a Stern-Gerlach experiment, if each
electron in an incident beam of hydrogen atoms has l = 1?
ˆ 2 Sˆ 2 2Sˆ L
Now from Jˆ 2 L ˆ we derive
2
1 ˆ 2 Sˆ 2 j ( j 1) l (l 1) s(s 1)
Sˆ L
ˆ Jˆ 2 L .
2 2
Exercise: The spin-orbit coupling splits the degeneracy between
the hydrogen states ψ2,1,1, –½ and ψ2,1,1,½ by ΔE = 4.5 × 10-5 eV.
Estimate the magnetic field B' felt by the electron.
Exercise: The spin-orbit coupling splits the degeneracy between
the hydrogen states ψ2,1,1, –½ and ψ2,1,1,½ by ΔE = 4.5 × 10-5 eV.
Estimate the magnetic field B' felt by the electron.
= ΔE/2μB
= 0.39 T .