Me8491 em Unit - II

UNIT – II
HEAT TREATMENT
HEAT TREATMENT
Heat treatment may be defined as an
operation or combination of operations
involving heating and cooling of a
metal/alloy in solid state to obtain
desirable properties.
MZCET/MECH/II A&B/ME6403/EMM/II 2
Purpose of Heat Treatment
1) Softening of internal stresses
2) Softening to further deformation
3) Refining the grain size to improve mechanical
properties
4) Improving the machinability
5) Increasing the corrosion and wear resistance
Variety of metal and various metallurgical
Processes are depending on
1) Method and rate of heating and cooling
2) Furnaces used
3) Quenching medium used
Process of Heat Treatment
1) Heating the metal to a specified temperature
2) Holding the metal at increased temperature
for a specific period
3) Cooling the metal according to specified
process
Heat Treatment Process Variables
1) The temperature to which metal or alloy is
heated.
2) Time period for which metal or alloy is held
at that elevated temperature it is called
soaking time or holding time.
3) Rate of cooling.
4) The quenching medium used.
5) The atmosphere surrounding the metal/alloy
during the heating process.
6) Size of the component
7) Shape of the component
8) Chemical composition of the component
9) Final desired properties.
Types of Heat Treatment Process
1) Annealing
a) Full annealing
b) Process annealing
c) Stress relief annealing
d) Recrystallization annealing
e) Spheroidise annealing
2) Normalizing
3) Hardening
4) Tempering
5) Austempering
6) Martempering
7) Case Hardening
a) Carburizing
b) Nitriding
c) Cyaniding
d) Carbonitriding
e) Flame Hardening
f) Induction Hardening
g) Vacuum and Plasma Hardening
Annealing
Annealing refers to a heat treatment in which
a material is exposed to an elevated
temperature for an extended time period and
then slowly cooled.
Annealing results in relief of internal stresses,
softening, chemical homogenizing and
transformation of the grain structure into
more stable state.
Three stages of Annealing
This change in hardness and ductility is a result
of the reduction of dislocations in the crystal
structure of the material being annealed
1) Heating to the desired temperature

2) Holding or soaking at that temperature
3) Cooling or quenching to room temperature.
Purpose of Annealing
1) To relieve or remove stresses
2) To induce softness
3) To alter ductility, toughness, electrical
and magnetic properties.
4) To refine grain structure
5) To remove gas
6) To produce a definite microstructure.
7)To soften the steel and to improve machinability.
8) To relieve internal stresses induced by some
previous treatment (rolling, forging, uneven
cooling).
9) To remove coarseness of grain.
Annealing stages
Stress Relief (recovery)
Recrystallization
Grain growth (over-annealing, secondary
recrystallization)
Stress relief (recovery):
A relatively low temperature process of reducing
internal mechanical stresses, caused by cold-
work, casting or welding.
Recrystallization:
Alteration of the grain structure of the metal.
Grain growth:
Growth of the new grains at the expense of their
neighbors, occurring at temperature, above the
recrystallization temperature.
Applications of Annealing
1) Casting
2) Forging
3) Rolled stock
4) Press work
Full Annealing
• Makes a metal as soft as possible .
• Hypoeutectoid steels (less than 0.83% carbon)
are heated above upper critical temperature
soaked and cooled slowly.
• Hypereutecoid (above 0.83%) are heated
above lower critical temperature soaked and
allowed to cool slowly.
• Slowly cooled to room temperature usually in
the furnace itself.
• The holding time should be atleast
20minutes/cm of the thickest section.
• The hypoeutectoid steels are always annealed
from above A3 temperature and
hypoeutectoid steels are annealed from A31
tempearture by 30-50C.
A1
Objective of Full Annealing
1) To soften the metal
2) To refine its crystalline structure
3) To relieve the stress
Spheroidising
1) High carbon (hypoeutectoid steel) has
cementite and ferrite in its structure.
2) Cementite is very hard and brittle.
3) Spheroidising is done to soften high carbon
steel and to improve machinability.
4) Microstructure obtained after this treatment
shows spheroids in a ferrite matrix.
5) It is conducted at temperatures that are
slightly below the eutectoid temperature
Spheroidising may be done by
1) Prolonged holding at a temperature just
below the lower critical temperature line
A3.1
2) Heating and cooling alternately between
temperatures just above and just below the
lower critical temperature line.
Objectives of Process Annealing
2) To increase the ductility
3) To refine its crystalline structure
4) To relieve the stress
Process Annealing & Spheroidising
Process Annealing
1) It is also called intermediate annealing.
2) In this process cold worked steel is heated
above recrystallization tempearture.
3) Purpose of this heat treatment is to reduce
hardness and to increase the ductility.
4) This process undergo recrystallization and
the formation of new stress free equated
grains from strained and distorted cold
worked grains.
• Low carbon steels may harden through
cold working. They can be heated to
around 100 degrees below lower critical
temperature soaked and allowed to cool
in air.
Objectives of Process Annealing
2) To increase the ductility
Applications of Process Annealing
Wide applications in
1) Steel sheets
2) Wire Drawing
Stress Relief Annealing
1) Stress Relief Annealing is a heat treatment
process that is employed to eliminate
internal residual stress induced by casting,
quenching, machining, cold working.
2) In Stress Relief Annealing the steel parts are
heated in the range of 550C to 650C held for
a period of time and then slowly cooled.
Effects of Internal Residual Stress
If the internal Residual Stress are not removed
then distortion or warpage of the material may
result.
Distortion
Deformation resulting in change in size and
shape of heat treatment work.
Recrystallization annealing
Recrystallization Temperature:
It is defined as one half of the melting point
temperature.
Recrystallization annealing:
In this heat treatment process cold worked steel
is heated to a temperature above
recrystallization temperature held at this
temperature for same time and cooled.
Recrystallization Annealing
Dissolve the impure compound in a minimum

volume of hot (near boiling) solvent.
Add solid to solvent Heat mixture to
dissolve solid
with stirring
Place beaker in
water bath
Add additional
solvent until
fully dissolved
Objectives of Normalizing
1) To refine the grain structure
2) To increase the strength of steel
3) To provide uniform structure in castings and
forgings
4) To relieve internal residual stress
5) To achieve mechanical and electrical
properties.
Normalizing
• Normalizing differs from the full annealing in
that the metal is allowed to cool in still air.
• The structure and properties produced,
however, varying with the thickness of metal
treated.
• The tensile strength, yield point, reduction of
area and impact value are higher than the
figures obtained by annealing.
Purpose of Normalizing
1) Produces a uniform structure
2) Refines the grain size of steel
3) Reduces internal stresses
4) Improve structures in welds
5) Produces a harder and stronger steel than
full annealing
6) In general improves engineering properties
of steels.
Hardening :
• Hardening refers to the heat treatment
which increases the hardness by
quenching.
• Medium and High carbon steels (0.4 – 1.2%)
can be heated until red hot and then
quenched in water producing a very hard and
brittle metal. At 723 degrees, the BCC ferrite
changes into Austenite with a FCC structure.
Objectives of Hardening :
1) To harden the steel to resist wear
2) To enable it to cut other metals.
3) To increase the hardness of the metal
4) To enable it to cut other metals, to make it
suitable for cutting tools.
Hardening Process
The process of Hardening involves three
stages
1) Heating
2) Soaking
3) Cooling
Heating:
The steel to be heat treated is heated
slowly in a furnace to a temperature 30C to
50C above the upper critical temperature.
Soaking:
The heated steel is held at this
temperature for considerable length of
time to allow complete austenisation.
Cooling:
The steel is cooled by quenching to the
room temperature.
The cooling rate should be higher than
the critical cooling rate in order to get
the completely martensitic temperature.
Factors Affecting the Hardness
1) Carbon Content
2) Quenching Medium
3) Specimen Size
4) Other Factors
Carbon Content:
Since the hardness in steel is due to carbon
content therefore usually the hardening
process is carried out on the high carbon
steels (0.35 to 0.50%).
As the carbon content increases, the hardness
obtainable also increases.
Quenching Medium:
Hardness depends essentially upon the nature
and properties of quenching medium.
It may be noted that faster the cooling the
greater the hardness slower the cooling lower
the hardness
Specimen Size:
Specimen Size also affects the hardness
obtained from the hardening process.
As the specimen size increases hardness
decreases even though all other
conditions have remained the same.
Other Factors:
a) Shape of the specimen
b) Quenching temperature
c) Surface condition of the specimen
d) Alloying elements
Tempering
The ductility and toughness of martensite can
be enhanced and these internal stresses are
relieved by a heat treatment process known as
Tempering.
Tempering process usually follows hardening
process.
Objectives of Tempering
1) To improve ductility and toughness
2) To reduce brittleness of the hardened steel
3) To remove the internal stress caused by rapid
cooling.
4) To impart wear resistance.
Tempering Process
• Tempering is the process of heating a martensite
steel at a temperature below the eutectoid
transformation temperature (i.e. between 250 to
650) for a specified time period and it is slowly
cooled to room temperature.
• When the martensite steel is heated at
temperature as low as 200C the internal stress
may be relieved.
• The tempering heat transforms from martensite
into tempered by diffusional process.
Classification of Tempering
1) Low temperature tempering
2) Medium temperature tempering
3) High temperature tempering
Low temperature tempering
• Low temperature tempering is performed in
the temperature range from 150 to 250C
• This process is used to retain hard
microstructure of martensite.
• This process is generally applied on cutting
and measuring tools of carbon and low alloy
steels and the parts which are surface
hardened and case cabusrised.
Medium temperature tempering
• Medium temperature tempering is performed
in the temperature range from 350 – 450 C.
• This process develop tempered-troosite
structure.
• This process is applied on spring steels and die
steels.
High temperature tempering
• The High temperature tempering is performed

in the temperature range from 500 to 650C
• This process develops sorbite structure.
• It eliminates the internal stresses completely.
• This process is applied on structural steels.
Time-Temperature-Transformation
(TTT )
• T (Time) T(Temperature) T(Transformation) diagram
is a plot of temperature versus the logarithm of time
for a steel alloy of definite composition.
• It is used to determine when transformations begin
and end for an isothermal (constant temperature)
heat treatment of a previously austenitized alloy.
• When austenite is cooled slowly to a temperature
below LCT (Lower Critical Temperature), the
structure that is formed is Pearlite.
• As the cooling rate increases, the pearlite
transformation temperature gets lower.
• The microstructure of the material is
significantly altered as the cooling rate
increases.
• By heating and cooling a series of samples, the
history of the austenite transformation may
be recorded.
• TTT diagram indicates when a specific transformation
starts and ends and it also shows what percentage of
transformation of austenite at a particular
temperature is achieved.
• Cooling rates in the order of increasing severity are
achieved by quenching from elevated temperatures
as follows: furnace cooling, air cooling, oil quenching,
liquid salts, water quenching and brine.
• The area between the two curves indicates the
transformation of austenite to different types of
crystal structures. (Austenite to pearlite, austenite to
martensite, austenite to bainite transformation.)
(TTT ) Diagram
(TTT )
• T (Time) T(Temperature) T(Transformation) diagram
is a plot of temperature versus the logarithm of time
for a steel alloy of definite composition.
• It is used to determine when transformations begin
and end for an isothermal (constant temperature)
heat treatment of a previously austenitized alloy.
• When austenite is cooled slowly to a temperature
below LCT (Lower Critical Temperature), the
structure that is formed is Pearlite.
Lower Critical Temperature
• When austenite is cooled to temperatures below
LCT, it transforms to other crystal structures due
to its unstable nature.
• A specific cooling rate may be chosen so that the
transformation of austenite can be 50 %, 100 %
etc.
• If the cooling rate is very slow such as annealing
process, the cooling curve passes through the
entire transformation area and the end product
of this the cooling process becomes 100%
Pearlite.
• In other words, when slow cooling is applied, all
the Austenite will transform to Pearlite.
• If the cooling curve passes through the middle of
the transformation area, the end product is 50 %
Austenite and 50% Pearlite, which means that at
certain cooling rates we can retain part of the
Austenite, without transforming it into Pearlite.
Lower Critical Temperature
HARDENABILITY
• It is defined as that property which
determines the depth and distribution of
hardness induced by quenching from
austenitic condition.
• Hardenability is the measure of the depth to
which full hardness can be obtained.
Factors affecting hardenability
• The composition of steel
• The austenite grain structure
• Structure of steel before quenching
• Quenching medium and method of quenching
Determining hardenability (Jominy End-
Quenching)
The jominy end quench test method is adopted
universally adopted because
1) It is relatively easy to perform
2) It has excellent reproducibility
3) It gives information useful to a designer as
well as manufacturer.
End-Quench Specimen
Types of Hardening
Strain Hardening (work hardening)
Grain size Hardening
Solid solution Hardening
Dispersion Hardening
Precipitation hardening
Strain Hardening:
Strengthening by cold-work (cold plastic
deformation).
Cold Plastic Deformation:
It causes increase of concentration of
dislocations, which mutually entangle one
another, making further dislocation motion
difficult and therefore resisting the deformation
or increasing the metal strength.
Grain size Hardening:
Grain size obtained by grain refining.
Solid solution hardening:
Solid solution strengthening by dissolving an
alloying element.
Dispersion strengthening:
Strengthening by addition of second phase into
metal matrix.
Precipitation Hardening (Age Hardening)
Strengthening by precipitation of fine particles

of a second phase from a supersaturated solid
solution.
The age hardening mechanism in Al-Cu alloys
may be illustrated by the phase diagram of Al-
Cu system.
When an alloy Al-3%Cu is heated up to the
temperature TM, all CuAl2 particles are
dissolved and the alloy exists in form of single
phase solid solution (α-phase).
Age Hardening
Precipitation from supersaturated solid solution
occurred in several steps
 Segregation of Cu atoms into plane clusters.
These clusters are called Guinier-Preston1 zones
(G-P1 zones).
 Diffusion of Cu atoms to the G-P1 zones and
formation larger clusters, called GP2 zones or θ”
phase. This phase is coherent with the matrix .
 Formation of θ’ phase which is partially coherent
with the matrix. This phase provides maximum
hardening.
Continuous Cooling Transformation
(CCT) phase diagram
MZCET/MECH/II A&B/ME6403/EMM/II
Continuous Cooling
Transformation (CCT) phase
73
diagram
Martempering
• It will be readily appreciated that the quenching
operation used in hardening introduces internal
stresses into the steel.
• These can be sufficiently large to distort or even
crack the steel.
• Martempering is a method by which the stresses and
strains generated during the quenching of a steel
component can be controlled.
• A method of tempering steel that reduces its
tendency to crack or distort, by rapid quenching to a
temperature just above that.
• This allows temperature equalization across the
section of the part and more uniform cooling and
structure, hence lower stresses.
• The steel can then be tempered in the usual way.
• MARTEMPERING is a term used to describe an
interrupted quench from the austenitizing
temperature of certain alloy, cast, tool, and stainless
steels. The purpose is to delay the cooling just above
the martensitic transformation for a length of time to
equalize the temperature throughout the piece.
Austempering
• Austempering also involves an isothermal hold in the
quenching operation, but the structure formed, whilst
hard and tough, does not require further tempering.
• Austempering is a heat treating process for medium-to-
high carbon ferrous metals which produces a
metallurgical structure called bainite. It is used to
increase strength, toughness, and reduce distortion.
• The process is mostly applied to high carbon steels in
relatively thin sections for springs or similar parts.
• These processes are shown schematically in the TTT
Curves.
Case Hardening or Surface Treatment
• In many applications, it is desirable that the
surface of the components should have high
hardness, while the inside or core should be
soft.
• The treatment given to steels to achieve this
are called surface heat treatment or Surface
hardening.
Applications
1) Gears
2) Splines
3) Cams
4) Bearing balls
5) Wrist Pins
6) Universal joints
7) Valve Tappets
Types of Surface Heat Treatment
1) Diffusion methods
a) Carburizing
Pack Carburising
Liquid Carburising
Gas Carburising
b) Nitriding
c) Cyaniding
d) Carbonitriding
2) Thermal methods
a) Flame hardening
b) Induction hardening
Diffusion surface hardening treatment
In this method the hardness of the surface is
improved by diffusing interstitial elements like
carbon, nitrogen.
Carburizing
• Carburizing is a casehardening process in which
carbon is added to the surface of low carbon
steel.
• When the carburized steel is heat treated, the
case is hardened while the core remains soft and
tough.
• Carburizing, carburising, or carburization is a heat
treatment process in which iron or steel absorbs
carbon while the metal is heated in the presence
of a carbon-bearing material, such as charcoal or
carbon monoxide.
Carburizing is the addition of carbon to the
surface of low-carbon steels at temperatures
generally between 850 and 950°C (1560 and
1740°F), at which austenite, with its high
solubility for carbon, is the stable crystal
structure.
PACK CARBURISING
• In this process, the part that is to be
carburized is packed in a steel container so
that it is completely surrounded by granules of
charcoal.
• The charcoal is treated with an activating
chemical such as Barium Carbonate (BaBO3)
that promotes the formation of Carbon
Dioxide (CO2).
PACK CARBURISING
• This gas in turn reacts with the excess carbon
in the charcoal to produce carbon monoxide;
CO.
• Carbon Monoxide reacts with the low-carbon
steel surface to form atomic carbon which
diffuses into the steel.
• Carbon Monoxide supplies the carbon
gradient that is necessary for diffusion.
PACK CARBURISING
• The carburizing process does not harden the
steel.
• It only increases the carbon content to some
predetermined depth below the surface to a
sufficient level to allow subsequent quench
hardening.
• Carbon Monoxide reaction: CO2 + C ---> 2 CO
• Reaction of Cementite to Carbon Monoxide: 2
CO + 3 Fe --->Fe3C + CO2
LIQUID CARBURIZING
• Performed in internally or externally heated
molten salt pots.
• Carburizing salt contains cyanide compounds
such as sodium cyanide (NaCN).
• Cycle times is much shorter (1 to 4 hours) than
gas and pack carburizing processes.
• Disadvantage is the disposal of salt.
• (Environmental problems) and (safe disposal is
very expensive).
LIQUID CARBURIZING
NaCN - SODIUM CYANIDE

BaCl2 - BARIUM CHLORIDE
NaCl - SODIUM CHLORIDE
GAS CARBURIZING
• Carbonaceous gas: methane, ethane, propane
or natural gas.
• Most carburizing gases are flammable.
• controls are needed to keep carburizing gas at
1700 F from contacting air (oxygen).
• The advantage over pack carburizing is an
improved ability to quench from the
carburizing temperature.
GAS CARBURIZING
• Conveyor hearth furnaces make quenching in
a controlled atmosphere possible.
• In gas carburizing, the parts are surrounded by
a carbon-bearing atmosphere that can be
continuously replenished so that a high
carbon potential can be maintained.
GAS CARBURIZING
GAS CARBURIZING
NITRIDING
• Nitriding is unlike other casehardening
processes in that, before nitriding, the part is
heat treated to produce definite physical
properties.
• Parts are hardened and tempered before
being nitrided.
• Most steels can be nitrided, but special alloys
are required for best results.
Objectives of Nitriding
To obtain high surface hardness
To increase wear resistance and anti galling
properties
 To improve fatigue life
To improve corrosion resistance
To obtain a surface that is resistant to the
softening effect of heat at temperatures up to
the nitriding temperature.
NITRIDING
• In this process, nitrogen is diffused into the
surface of the steel being treated.
• The reaction of nitrogen with the steel causes
the formation of very hard iron and alloy
nitrogen compounds.
• The resulting nitride case is harder than tool
steels or carburized steels.
NITRIDING
• The advantage of this process is that hardness
is achieved without the oil, water or air
quench.
• Hardening is accomplished in a nitrogen
atmosphere that prevents scaling and
discoloration.
• Nitriding temperature is below the lower
critical temperature of the steel and it is set
between 925 oF and 1050 oF.
NITRIDING
NITRIDING

CYANIDING
Cyaniding is a fast and efficient process.
Produce a case with a desired combination of
hardness and toughness.
It is mainly used on low-carbon steels.
The part is heated to 871-954 °C in a bath of
sodium cyanide.
Quenched and rinsed in water or oil to remove any
residual cyanide.
This process produces a thin, hard shell (between
0.25 - 0.75 mm, 0.01 and 0.03 inches)
CYANIDING
2NaCN + O2 → 2NaCNO
2NaCNO + O2 → Na2CO3 + CO + N2
2CO → CO2 + C
 The process can be completed in 20 to 30 minutes.
 It is typically used on small parts such as bolts, nuts,
screws and small gears.
 The major drawback of cyaniding is that cyanide
salts are poisonous.
CARBONITRIDING
Modified form of gas carburizing, rather than
a form of nitriding.
Introducing ammonia into the gas carburizing
atmosphere to add nitrogen to the carburized
case as it is being produced.
Nascent nitrogen forms at the work surface by
the dissociation of ammonia.
The nitrogen diffuses into the steel
simultaneously with carbon.
CARBONITRIDING
Primarily to impart a hard, wear-resistant
case, generally from 0.075 to 0.75 mm (0.003
to 0.030 in.) deep.
Steels commonly carbonitrided include those
in the AISI 1000, 1100, 1200, 1300, 1500,
4000, 4100, 4600, 5100, 6100, 8600, and 8700
series.
With carbon contents up to about 0.25%.

CARBONITRIDING
Carbon range of 0.30 to 0.50% are
carbonitrided to case depths up to about 0.3
mm (0.01 in.)
When a combination of a reasonably tough,
through-hardened core and a hard.
Shafts and transmission gears are typical
examples.
2NH3 →N2 + 3H2

CARBONITRIDING

INDUCTION HARDENING
• Electric current flow is induced in the work
piece to produce a heating action.
• Every electrical conductor carrying a current
has a magnetic field surrounding the
conductor.
• Since the core wire is a dead-end circuit, the
induced current cannot flow anyplace, so the
net effect is heating of the wire.

INDUCTION HARDENING
• The resistance to current flow causes very
rapid heating of the core material.
• Heating occurs from the outside inward.
• Induction hardening process includes water
quench after the heating process.
• The big advantage of this system is its speed.
• Ability to confine heating on small parts.

INDUCTION HARDENING

INDUCTION HARDENING

FLAME HARDENING
• Process of selective hardening with a
combustible gas flame as the source of heat.
• The material should have at least 0.40 %
Carbon content to allow hardening.
• Water quenching is applied as soon as the
transformation temperature is reached.

FLAME HARDENING
• Heating media: oxygen acetylene, propane, or
any other combination of fuel gases.
• This procedure is applied to the gear teeth,
shear blades, cams, ways on the lathes, etc.
• Flame hardening temperatures are around
1500oF.
• Up to HRC 65 hardness can be achieved.
• For best results the hardness depth is 3/16
inch.
FLAME HARDENING

FLAME HARDENING

FLAME HARDENING
There are three methods of flame
hardening are
(1)Spot Flame Hardening
(2) Spin Flame Hardening
(3) Progressive Flame Hardening

Spot Flame Hardening:
Flame is directed to the spot that needs to be
heated and hardened.
Spin Flame Hardening:
The workpiece is rotated while in contact with
the flame.
Progressive Flame Hardening:
The torch and the quenching medium move
across the surface of the workpiece.

VACUUM HARDENING

PLASMA HARDENING
 Plasma carburizing is a thermo-chemical treatment that is
normally performed between 900 °C and 1100 °C.
 Possibility of achieving better dimensional control of pieces
with complex geometry.
 Efficient technique in the hardening process of austenitic and
martensitic stainless steel.
 Plasma carburizing at low temperatures can be used to
obtain a polycrystalline cementite layer

PLASMA HARDENING

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UNIT – II

1) Heating to the desired temperature

Dissolve the impure compound in a minimum

• The High temperature tempering is performed

Strengthening by precipitation of fine particles

NaCN - SODIUM CYANIDE

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