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THE ATOM

TOPICS
• Development of the Atomic Theory
• Quantum Mechanics and Atomic Orbitals
• Wave Behavior of Matter
• Introduction to the Periodic Table
• Electron Configuration
Empedocles
Empedocles stated that
matter was made of 4
elements: earth, air, fire,
water.
Democritus
• Ancient Greek philosopher
(460 - 370 B.C.)
• Believed there was a limit to
how far you could divide
matter
• Would eventually end up with
a piece of matter that could
not be cut
• Called “atomos” (indivisible)
Democritus
• Atoms
• Small particles
• Cannot be further split into smaller portions
• Always moving
• Form different materials by joining together
• Has void between them
• Completely solid
• Homogeneous, with no internal structure
• Can differ in size, shape, and weight
Democritus
• Theory was
forgotten for a long
time because it was
not believed by
more famous
philosophers
(Aristotle and
Plato)
John Dalton
• Brought back
Democritus’ idea in
the early 19th
century
Dalton’s Postulates
Each element is composed of
extremely small indivisible particles
called atoms.
Dalton’s Postulates
All atoms of a given element
are identical to one another in
mass and other properties,
but the atoms of one element
are different from the atoms
of all other elements.
Dalton’s Postulates
Compounds are formed when
atoms of more than one element
combine; a given compound
always has the same relative
number and kind of atoms.
Dalton’s Postulates
Atoms of an element are not changed into atoms of a
different element by chemical reactions; atoms are
neither created nor destroyed in chemical reactions.
Law of Constant
Composition
Formulated by Joseph
Proust
Also known as the law
of definite proportions.
The elemental
composition of a pure
substance never varies.
Example: Water
• Water always contains the same two
elements: hydrogen and oxygen.
• The percent by mass of hydrogen in water is
11.2%.
• The percent by mass of oxygen in water is
88.8%.
• Water always has these percentages. If the
percentages were different the compound
would not be water.
Example: Hydrogen
Peroxide
Hydrogen peroxide always contains the same
two elements: hydrogen and oxygen.
The percent by mass of hydrogen in hydrogen
peroxide is 5.9%.
The percent by mass of oxygen in hydrogen
peroxide is 94.1%.
Hydrogen peroxide always has these
percentages. If the percentages were different
the compound would not be hydrogen
peroxide.
Law of Multiple
Proportions
• Announced by Dalton in 1804

• If elements A and B react to form two compounds, the


different masses of B that combine with a fixed mass
of A can be expressed as a ratio of small whole
numbers.
Example: Water and Hydrogen
Peroxide

Mass Mass
Hydrogen(g) Oxygen(g)

Water 1.0 8.0

Hydrogen
1.0 16.0
Peroxide
Example: Carbon and Oxygen

Mass Mass
Carbon(g) Oxygen(g)

Carbon
1.0 1.33
Monoxide

Carbon
1.0 2.66
Dioxide
Examples
• Illustrating the Law of Multiple Proportions
• The following data were collected for several compounds of nitrogen
and oxygen:
• Mass of Nitrogen That Combines With 1 g of Oxygen
• Compound A 1.750 g
• Compound B 0.8750 g
• Compound C 0.4375 g
Law of Conservation of
Mass
• Contributed by Antoine-
Laurent Lavoisier
• The total mass of
substances present at the
end of a chemical process
is the same as the mass of
substances present before
the process took place.
Michael Faraday
• Made a statement that the atom is a neutral
entity
• Discovered that certain substances, when
dissolved in water, conducted an electric
current.
• Found that atoms of some elements moved
to the cathode and some moved to the
anode
• Concluded they were electrically charged
and called them ions
William Crookes
• British scientist who concluded that
cathode rays in an evacuated tube
consist of a stream of charged
particles produced at the cathode in
1879.

• Particle is now known as electron


The Cathode Ray Tube
The Cathode Ray Tube
Cathode Ray
• Attracted to the positive electrode
• Not visible but could make things “glow”
• Traveled in a straight line
• Could be bent by electric or magnetic fields
• A plate in it’s path acquired a negative charge
• Same regardless of material
Eugene Goldstein
• German scientist who observed
“canal rays” (protons) in a
modified Crookes tube.
J. J. Thomson
• British scientist (1898 –
1903) who measured the
charge/mass ratio of the
electron in 1897.
• It was found out to be 1.76 ×
108 coulombs/g.
The Electron
• Thomson discovered that he could repeat this deflection and
• calculation using electrodes of different metals ∴ all metals
• contained electrons and ALL ATOMS contained electrons
• o Furthermore, all atoms were neutral ∴ there must be some (+)
• charge within the atom and the “plum pudding” model was
• born. Lord Kelvin may have played a role in the development
• of this model. [the British call every dessert pudding—we’d
• call it raisin bread where the raisins were the electrons
• randomly distributed throughout the + bread]
Thomson’s Plum Pudding
Model
• Thomson proposed the
“plum pudding” model
of the atom with
electrons in sea of
positive charges in
1904. He verified
positive charges in
1907.
Robert Millikan
• American scientist who
determined the charge
of the electron (1.60 x
10–19 coulomb) with his
oil drop experiment in
1909.
Millikan Oil Drop
Experiment
Once charge/mass
ratio was known,
determination of
either the charge or
the mass would yield
the other.
Radioactivity
• The spontaneous
emission of
radiation by an atom
• First observed by
Henri Becquerel.
• Also studied by
Marie and Pierre
Curie.
Radioactivity
• Three types of radiation
were discovered by
Ernest Rutherford:
• α particles
• β particles
• γ rays
Radioactivity
• Alpha (α) particles – positively charged; similar to
helium in mass (7300 times the mass of an electron)
• Beta (β) particles – negatively charged; similar to the
electrons
• Gamma (γ) rays – a form of electromagnetic emission
similar to the neutrons
Relative Penetrating
Power of Radioactive
Emissions
a

paper wood concrete lead


Ernest Rutherford
Shot α particles at a
thin sheet of gold foil
and observed the
pattern of scatter of
the particles in 1911.
Rutherford’s Gold Foil
Experiment
Rutherford’s Gold Foil Experiment
: Results
• Most of the alpha particles passed thru the target
undeflected.
• Some were deflected at small (acute) angles.
• A few were deflected at large (obtuse) angles.
Rutherford’s Gold Foil Experiment
: Interpretation
• The atom is mostly empty space.
• There is a barrier inside the atom which the alpha particles
seem to evade.
• Mass is heavy.
• Charge is positive.
• Volume is small
• Location is center.
• The electrons are outside the nucleus (extranuclear
electrons).
Thomson’s model Rutherford’s model

Copyright © by Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.


The Nuclear Atom
• Thomson’s model could not be correct.
• Postulated a very small, dense nucleus with the electrons
around the outside of the atom.
• Most of the volume of the atom is empty space.
Comparison
NUCLEUS ATOM
Pinhead House
Golf ball Olympic stadium

Ping pong ball Circumference 2 km away from


center
Walther Bothe
• In an investigation involving
radioactivity in 1930, he produced
neutrons, but he was not aware he
had.
James Chadwick
• British scientist who discovered
neutrons.
Neutrons
The neutrons can be found with the protons in the
nucleus.

The neutrons provide the BINDING FORCE for the


protons.
Subatomic Particles
Name Symbol Charge Mass
Electron e -1.6022 x10-19 C 9.1091 x10-31 kg
Proton p +1.6022 x10-19 C 1.6726 x10-27 kg
Neutron n 0 1.6749 x10-27 kg
Subatomic Particles
• Most of the mass & all of the positive charge of the atom are
in the nucleus, which occupies only 1 part in 1014 of the
atoms volume.
• Protons and electrons are the only particles that have a
charge, which are of the same magnitude.
• Protons and neutrons have essentially the same mass.
• The mass of an electron is so small we ignore it.
Scale
• Useful units:

1 amu (atomic mass unit) = 1.66054 x 10-24 kg


1 pm (picometer) = 1 x 10-12 m
1 Å (Angstrom) = 1 x 10-10 m = 100 pm
Scale
• There are 2 X 1022 atoms in a
penny. If all the atoms in a
penny were blown up to the
size of a grain of sand they
would cover the entire state
of California
Atomic Number
The atomic number of an element is equal to the
number of protons in the nucleus of that element.
The atomic number of an atom determines which
element the atom is.
Example : Hydrogen

H
• Every atom with an atomic number of 1 is a
hydrogen atom.

Every hydrogen atom contains 1 proton in its


nucleus.

1 proton in the
nucleus
1
Example : Carbon

C
• Every atom with an atomic number of 6 is a
carbon atom.

Every carbon atom contains 6 protons in its


nucleus.

6 protons in the
nucleus
6
Example: Uranium

U
• Every atom with an atomic number of 92 is a
uranium atom.

Every uranium atom contains 92 protons in its


nucleus.

92
92 protons
in the
nucleus
Isotope
Atoms of the same
element can have
different masses.
The difference in the
number of neutrons
accounts for the
difference in mass.
Isotopic Notation
Example : Carbon

6 protons + 6 neutrons
12
6 C
6 protons
Example : Carbon

6 protons + 8 neutrons
14
6 C
6 protons
Example : Oxygen

8 protons + 8 neutrons
16
8 O
8 protons
Example : Oxygen

8 protons + 9 neutrons
17
8 O
8 protons
Example : Oxygen

8 protons + 10 neutrons
18
8 O
8 protons
Isotopes of Hydrogen
Atom No. of No. of No. of Atomic Mass Symbol
Protons Neutrons Electrons No. No.

I 26 29 26 26 55

II 25 29 25 25 54

III 26 30 26 26 56
IV 26 33 26 26 59

V 27 28 27 27 55

Which atoms are isotopes of the same element?


Which atoms have approximately the same mass?
Which atoms have the same nuclear charge?
Write the isotopic notation of each atom.
Ions
When atoms lose or gain electrons, they become ions.
• Cations are positive and are formed by elements on the
left side of the periodic chart.
• Anions are negative and are formed by elements on the
right side of the periodic chart.
Ionic compounds (such as NaCl) are generally formed
between metals and nonmetals.
Complete the following table. Complete also the symbol.
Symbol At. # of p+ # of e- # of n0 Nuclear Atomic Mass Isotopic
No. Charge Charge No. Mass

10 14 27

36 46 +34
Atomic Mass
• Atomic and molecular masses can be measured with
great accuracy with a mass spectrometer.
Average Mass
• Because in the real world we use large amounts of
atoms and molecules, we use average masses in
calculations.
• Calculated from the isotopes of an element weighted
by their relative abundances.
Sample Exercise
Naturally occurring chlorine is 75.78% 35Cl, which has
an atomic mass of 34.969 amu, and 24.22% 37Cl, which
has an atomic mass of 36.966 amu. Calculate the
average atomic mass (that is, the atomic weight) of
chlorine.
Sample Exercise
Three isotopes of silicon occur in nature: 28Si (92.23%),
which has an atomic mass of 27.97693 amu; 29Si
(4.68%), which has an atomic mass of 28.97649 amu;
and 30Si (3.09%), which has an atomic mass of 29.97377
amu. Calculate the atomic weight of silicon.
Sample Exercise
• Gallium has an atomic weight of 69.7174 amu. If one
isotope has a mass of 68.9257 amu and has a relative
abundance of 70.9249%, find the mass of another
isotope with a relative abundance of 29.6%?
Other Sub-Atomic Particles

• Murray Gell-Mann/George
Zweig proposed the theory of
hadrons (1963)
Other Sub-Atomic Particles
The particles discovered have been classified into several categories. Three of the
most important classes are as follows:
HADRONS (bulky) are particles that respond to the strong force and have internal
structure. (Protons, neutrons and hyperons called baryons and kaons and pions
called mesons)
LEPTONS (small) are particles that do not respond to the strong force and have no
internal structure. (Muon, electron, mu neutrino)
QUARKS are particles with no internal structure that are thought to be
fundamental constituents of hadrons. Neutrons and protons are hadrons that are
thought to be composed of three quarks each.
Hadrons
• BARYON MESON
Other Sub-Atomic
Particles
Particle physicists have discovered new properties of
matter they call “COLOR”, “CHARM”, and
“STRANGENESS” and have postulated conservation
laws involving these properties. This area of science is
extremely important because it should help us to
understand the interactions of matter in a more
elegant and unified way (UNIFIED FIELD THEORY)
Other Sub-Atomic Particles
Originally, there are three (3) different quarks are up, down, and
strange
Each quark is assigned a color: red, blue and green
Their antiquarks are: cyan, yellow, and magenta
“Color” is the subnuclear counterpart of the quantum no. of an
electron
The gluon acts as carrier between quarks providing binding force
through exchange of colors; its grip increases with distance
Other Sub-Atomic Particles
In 1974, two (2) new subatomic particles were
discovered called J and psi particles these
particles have large masses and long half-lives
they could not be explained by only 3 quarks their
existence necessitated the formulation of 3 new
quarks called charm, truth, and beauty.
ELECTRONIC
STRUCTURE OF ATOMS
Behavior of Atoms
• Assumption that molecules behave like rebounding balls, physicists
were able to predict and explain some macroscopic phenomena, such
as the pressure exerted by a gas.
• Did not account for the stability of molecules; that is, it could not
explain the forces that hold atoms together.
• Properties of atoms and molecules are not governed by the same laws
that work so well for larger objects.
The Nature of Waves
• A wave can be thought of as a
vibrating disturbance by which
energy is transmitted.
• The speed of a wave depends on
the type of wave and the nature
of the medium through which
the wave is traveling (for
example, air, water, or a vacuum).
The Nature of
Waves
• The distance between identical points on successive waves is called
the wavelength λ (lambda).
wavelengthwavelength
(measured(measured
from from
trough to trough)
peak to peak)
Wavelength and Energy

Team A
4 members

Team B
13 members

If both teams will be assigned to


perform similar tasks, which team would you expect to give a better performance?
Why?
The Nature of
Waves
• The frequency ν (nu) of the wave is the
number of waves that pass through a
particular point in one second.
• The amplitude is the vertical distance
from the midline of a wave to the peak
or trough.
• The speed (u) is given by the product of
its wavelength and its frequency.
James Clerk Maxwell
• Scottish scientist who, in 1873, proposed that
visible light consists of electromagnetic waves.
• An electromagnetic wave has an electric field
component and a magnetic field component.
These two components have the same λ and ν,
and hence the same speed (3.00 x 108 m/s), but
they travel in mutually perpendicular planes.
• His model accurately describes how radiation
can be propagated through space as vibrating
electric and magnetic fields.
Electromagnetic Radiation
• Electromagnetic radiation is the emission and transmission of energy
in the form of electromagnetic waves.
The Visible Spectrum
color l energy

R
O
Y
G
B
I
V decreasing increasing

90
Heating of Solids
• When solids are heated, they emit
electromagnetic radiation over a wide
range of wavelengths.
Max Planck
• German physicist who started the new era in
physics in 1900.
• While analyzing the data on the radiation
emitted by solids heated to various
temperatures, he discovered that atoms and
molecules emit energy only in certain
discrete quantities, or quanta.
• Physicists had always assumed that energy is
continuous, so his quantum theory turned
physics upside down.
Quantum Theory
• Energy is always emitted in integral multiples of hν. At the time Planck
presented his theory, he could not explain why energies should be
fixed or quantized in this manner. Starting with this hypothesis,
however, he had no trouble correlating the experimental data for
emission by solids over the entire range of wavelengths; they all
supported the quantum theory.
Albert Einstein
• German-American physicist used quantum
theory in 1905 to solve the photoelectric
effect, a phenomenon in which electrons are
ejected from the surface of certain metals
exposed to light of at least a certain minimum
frequency.
Photoelectric Effect
• The number of electrons ejected was proportional to the intensity (or
brightness) of the light, but the energies of the ejected electrons were
not. Below the threshold frequency no electrons were ejected no
matter how intense the light.
• Could not be explained by the wave theory of light.
• Einstein suggested that a beam of light is really a stream of particles.
These particles of light are now called photons.
• Using Planck’s quantum theory of radiation as a starting point,
Einstein deduced that each photon must possess energy.
Photoelectric Effect
• Electrons are held in a metal by attractive forces, and so removing
them from the metal requires light of a sufficiently high frequency to
break them free.
• Shining a beam of light onto a metal surface can be thought of as
shooting a beam of photons at the metal atoms.
Photoelectric Effect
• If the frequency of photons is such that hν is exactly equal to the energy
that binds the electrons in the metal, then the light will have just
enough energy to knock the electrons loose. If we use light of a higher
frequency, then not only will the electrons be knocked loose, but they
will also acquire some kinetic energy.
• The more intense beam of light consists of a larger number of photons;
consequently, it ejects more electrons from the metal’s surface than the
weaker beam of light. Thus, the more intense the light, the greater the
number of electrons emitted by the target metal; the higher the
frequency of the light, the greater the kinetic energy of the ejected
electrons.
Line Spectrum
• A particular source of radiant energy
may emit a single wavelength
(monochromatic readiation) or of
different wavelengths.
• When the wavelengths are separated, a
spectrum is produced.
What happens when elements are
introduced into the flame of a burner?
• Different colors appear depending on the element introduced.
• This became the basis of the flame test.
Colors in the Flame
TestELEMENT COLOR

Barium Yellow green


Calcium Orange red
Copper Dark green
Potassium Violet
Magnesium Bright white
Sodium Yellow
Strontium Carmine red/deep red
Magnesium

103
Strontium
104
Copper
105
Calcium
106
K S
W OR
IR E
F
107
Colors in the Flame
Test
An element not only changes the color of the flame but also changes
the appearance of the spectrum.
The spectrum now shows some lines.

Band Line
spectrum spectrum
Emission Spectrum
• The emission spectra of atoms in the gas phase do not show a
continuous spread of wavelengths
• The atoms produce bright lines in different parts of the visible
spectrum.
• These line spectra are the light emission only at specific wavelengths.
Line Spectrum
Each element gives a unique set of lines . (No two elements produce
the same arrangement of lines.)

This uniqueness of the lines allows the element to be identified thru its
line spectrum.

The line spectrum serves as the fingerprint of an element.


Line Spectrum
• No. of lines increases with increasing atomic no.
• Low atomic no. elements, fewer lines.
• High atomic no. elements, more lines.

What is the connection?


Bar Code

112
Electrons in Atoms
Electrons are NOT stationary.

What dangers lurk for stationary electrons?


Mobile Electrons
• To move, electrons must have energy.
• Motion dissipates energy.
• The electron reverts to the stationary state.
Niels Bohr
• Danish scientist who used the
Balmer formula to show that
electrons of hydrogen atoms exist
only in specific orbits (energy
levels).
Niels Bohr
Lines in the spectrum represent energy levels.
Energy levels are positions occupied by the electrons.
Each electron possesses a certain amount of energy.
The energy of an electron enables it to move around the nucleus
without being captured by the nucleus.
E1 E2 E3

An electron can have


one of several possible
energies depending on
its orbit.
117
10.4
Electrons
An revolve
electron has a
around
discretethe nucleus
energy whenin it
orbits thatan
occupies are located
orbit.
at fixed distances from
the nucleus.

118
10.4
Excitation of
electrons
• When an electron absorbs extra
energy, it becomes excited.

• Excitation also means


promotion.

• An electron jumps from a lower


to a higher energy level.
Excitation of
electrons
• The jump depends on how
much energy an electron
absorbs.

• There is no limit to the number


of energy levels an electron can
skip.
Excitation of
electrons
Energy absorbed represents a wavelength.
Each wavelength corresponds to a color in the spectrum.
The energy/wavelength/color DISAPPEARS from the spectrum creating
a dark line.
More electrons absorbing energy more dark lines.
This gives rise to a kind of line spectrum called the absorption
spectrum.
An Absorption Spectrum

colored background with dark lines


122
Excitation of
electrons Electrons don’t stay in the excited
state forever.
When the source of energy is
turned off, the electrons emit the
energy they absorbed and they
return to their original positions.
This emission of energy gives rise
to the other type of line spectrum
called the emission spectrum.
The Bohr Atomic Model
excitation
or
absorption

emission
The Bohr Atomic Model
Solar System Atom

Center
Sun Nucleus

Outside the
Center Planets Electrons

Path
Energy
Orbits
Levels
The Bohr Atomic Model

Solar System Atom

1 planet Different # of
Occupancy per orbit electrons
per orbit

2-dimensional 3-dimensional
Motion motion motion

The totality of all paths that an electron


can take as it travels around the nucleus
is a SHELL .
Shell

3 paths Sum total of all such paths


SHELL
Shell
n = 1, K

n = 2, L

n = 3, M CROSS-SECTION OF
SHELLS REPRESENTING

n = 4, N DIFFERENT ENERGY
LEVELS

n = principal quantum number


(rank of the energy level)
Occupancy of the
Energy Levels
• Minimum = 1 e-

• Maximum = 2n2
K n=1 2n2 = 2

L n=2 2n2 = 8

M n=3 2n2 = 18

N n=4 2n2 = 32
The Bohr Atomic
Model
mass no. = p+ + no

A 1

Z
X H p+ = 1
no = 0
1 e- K

1
e- = p+
atomic no.
Bohr “Planetary” Model
131
2 He4 5 B10
P+ = 2 2e- P+ = 5 2e- 3e-
n0 = 2 K n0 = 5 K L

3 Li7 6 C12
P+ = 3 P+ = 6
2e- 1e- 2e- 4e-
n0 = 4 n0 = 6
K L K L

N14
4Be
9 7

P+ = 4 P+ = 7
2e- 2e- 2e- 5e-
n0 = 5 n0 = 7
K L K L

132
8 O16

P+ = 8 Na23 P+ =11
2e- 6e- 11 2e- 8e- 1e-
n0 = 8 n0 = 12
K L K L M

P+ =12
9F 12Mg
19 24
P+ = 9 2e- 7e- 2e- 8e- 2e-
n0 = 10 n0 = 12
K L K L M

10 Ne20
P+ =10 P+ =13
13Al
27
2e 8e- 2e- 8e- 3e-
n0 = 10 n0 = 14
K L K L M

133
P+ =14 P+ =16
14Si 16S
29 32
2e- 8e- 4e- 2e- 8e- 6e-
n0 = 15 n0 = 16
K L M K L M

P+ =17
17Cl
35
P 30 P+ =15 2e- 8e- 7e-
15 2e- 8e- 5e- n0 = 18
n0 = 15 K L M
K L M

P+ =18 2e- 8e- 8e-


n0 = 20 K L M
18 Ar40

134
P+ =19 P+ =20
19K 20Ca
39 40
2e- 8e- 9e- 2e- 8e- 10e-
n0 = 20 n0 = 20
K L M K L M

135
The Bohr Atomic
Model
• Bohr’s calculations succeeded very well in correlating the
experimentally observed spectral lines with electron energy levels for
the hydrogen atom.
• Bohr’s methods did not succeed for heavier atoms.
• More theoretical work on atomic structure was needed.
Louis De Broglie
• French physicist who, in 1924, reasoned that if
light waves can behave like a stream of
particles (photons), then perhaps particles
such as electrons can possess wave properties.
• Wavelength of ordinary-sized objects, such as
a baseball, are too small to be observed.
• For objects the size of an electron the
wavelength can be detected.
Werner Heisenberg
• The dual nature of electrons was particularly
troublesome because of the electron’s
exceedingly small mass.
• To describe the problem of trying to locate a
subatomic particle that behaves like a wave,
the German physicist Werner Heisenberg
formulated what is now known as the
Heisenberg uncertainty principle: It is
impossible to know simultaneously both the
momentum (mass times velocity) and the
position of a particle with certainty.
Erwin Schrödinger
• Austrian physicist who, in 1926, using a
complicated mathematical technique,
formulated an equation that describes the
behavior and energies of submicroscopic
particles in general, an equation analogous to
Newton’s laws of motion for macroscopic
objects.
• The Schrödinger equation incorporates both
particle behavior, in terms of mass m, and wave
behavior, in terms of a wave function ψ (psi),
which depends on the location in space of the
system (such as an electron in an atom).
Quantum Mechanics
• Schröedinger’s work led to a new branch of physics called wave or
quantum mechanics.
• Using Schröedinger’s wave mechanics, the probability of finding an
electron in a certain region around the atom can be determined.
• The actual location of an electron within an atom cannot be
determined.
Quantum
Mechanics
• Based on wave mechanics it is clear that electrons are not revolving
around the nucleus in orbits.
• Instead of being located in orbits the electrons are located in orbitals.
• An orbital is a region around the nucleus where there is a high
probability of finding an electron.
• The concept of electron density gives the probability that an electron
will be found in a particular region of an atom.
Quantum Mechanical Model
Quantum Mechanical Model
• When we say that an electron is in a certain orbital, we mean that the
distribution of the electron density or the probability of locating the
electron in space is described by the square of the wave function
associated with that orbital.
Quantum Numbers
• In quantum mechanics, three quantum numbers are required to
describe the distribution of electrons, derived from the mathematical
solution of the Schrödinger equation for the hydrogen atom.
• They are called the principal quantum number, the angular
momentum quantum number, and the magnetic quantum number.
These quantum numbers will be used to describe atomic orbitals and
to label electrons that reside in them.
• A fourth quantum number—the spin quantum number—describes
the behavior of a specific electron and completes the description of
electrons in atoms.
The Principal Quantum
Number (n)
• Can have integral values 1, 2, 3, and so forth.
• In a hydrogen atom, the value of n determines the energy of an
orbital.
• Relates to the average distance of the electron from the nucleus in a
particular orbital.
• The larger n is, the greater the average distance of an electron in the
orbital from the nucleus and therefore the larger the orbital.
• A collection of orbitals with the same value of n is frequently called a
shell.
As n increases, the
energy of the electron
increases.
The first four
principal energy
levels of the
hydrogen atom.
Each level is
assigned a principal
quantum number n.

147
10.7
The Angular Momentum
Quantum Number (l)
• Tells us the “shape” of the orbitals.
• The values of l depend on the value of n.
• For a given value of n, l has possible integral values from 0 to (n - 1)
• The value of , is generally designated by the letters s, p, d, f, g, etc.
• One or more orbitals with the same n and l values are referred to as a
subshell.
Each principal energy level
10.7, 10.8
is subdivided into sublevels. 149
The s Orbital
• An s orbital is spherical in shape.
• The spherical surface encloses a space
where there is a 90% probability that the
electron may be found.
The p Orbital
• A p orbital is “tear drop”shaped.
• Each p orbital has two lobes.
The p Orbital
• The three p orbitals share a pz
common center.
• The three p orbitals point in
different directions.

py px
The d Orbital
• The five d orbitals all point in different directions.
The f Orbital
The g Orbital
The Magnetic Quantum
Number (ml)
• Describes the orientation of the orbital in space
• Within a subshell, the value of ml depends on the value of l
• For a certain value of l, there are (2l + 1) integral values of ml
Number of Orbitals in a Sublevel 157
10.8 10.10 10.11
Energies of Orbitals: Hydrogen
Energies of Orbitals
The Electron Spin Quantum
Number (ms)
• Lines in the emission spectra could be split by
the application of an external magnetic field.
The only way physicists could explain these
results was to assume that electrons act like
tiny magnets.
• According to electromagnetic theory, a
spinning charge generates a magnetic field.
• It is necessary to introduce a fourth quantum
number, called the electron spin quantum
number (ms), which has a value of +1/2 or
-1/2.
Electron Spin
• An electron can spin in one of two possible directions
represented by ↑ or ↓.
• The two electrons that occupy an atomic orbital must have
opposite spins.
• This is known as the Pauli Exclusion Principal.
Wolfgang Pauli
• Austrian-born physicist who discovered in 1925 the Pauli exclusion
principle, which states that in an atom no two electrons can occupy
the same quantum state simultaneously.
To determine the electronic structures of
atoms the following guidelines are used.
• No more than two electrons can occupy one orbital
To determine the electronic structures of
atoms the following guidelines are used.
• Electrons occupy the lowest energy orbitals available. They enter a
higher energy orbital only after the lower orbitals are filled, also called
“Aufbau principle”
• For the atoms beyond hydrogen, orbital energies vary as s<p<d<f for
a given value of n.
2 s orbital
1 s orbital
Aufbau Principle
n l n+l

4s 4 0 4

3d 3 2 5
Aufbau Principle
1s 2s 3s 4s 5s 6s 7s

2p 3p 4p 5p 6p 7p

3d 4d 5d 6d 7d

4f 5f 6f 7f
To determine the electronic structures of
atoms the following guidelines are used.
• Each orbital on a sublevel is occupied by a single
electron before a second electron enters (also
called Hund’s rule). For example, all three p
orbitals must contain one electron before a
second electron enters a p orbital.
Nuclear makeup and
electronic structure of each
principal energy level of an
atom

number of protons and of electrons


number
neutrons in the nucleus
in each sublevel
ELECTRON
CONFIGURATION
Electron Configuration
• The four quantum numbers enable us to label completely an electron
in any orbital in any atom.
• We can regard the set of four quantum numbers as the “address” of
an electron in an atom.
• For many-electron atoms, we must know the electron configuration
of the atom, that is, how the electrons are distributed among the
various atomic orbitals, in order to understand electronic behavior.
Electron Configuration
Number of
electrons in
sublevel orbitals

Principal
2p 6
energy level Type of orbital
Electron Configuration
Spin

Principal
2px 1
energy level Angular
Orientation
momentum
Orbital Diagram
• Boxes represent orbitals.
• Electrons are indicated by arrows: ↑ or ↓.
• Each arrow direction represents one of the two possible electron spin
states.

H ↑ 1s1
Electron Structures and 
the Periodic Table

174
In 1869 Dimitri Mendeleev of Russia and Lothar Meyer of
Germany independently published periodic arrangements of the
elements based on increasing atomic masses.

Mendeleev’s arrangement is the precursor to


the modern periodic table.

175
Period numbers correspond
Horizontal rows are
to the highest occupied
called periods.
energy level.

176
10.14
Elements
Elements in the
with
in the B groups
groups
similar
A
Groups
are are numbered
designated transition
properties
are are organized
designated
with Roman numerals.
in groups or families.
representative elements.
elements.

177
10.14
TheForchemical
A family elements
behaviortheandvalence
properties
electron of
elements
configuration
in a family
is the same
are associated
in each column.
with the
electron configuration of its elements.
178
10.15
With the exception of helium which has a filled s
orbital, the nobles gases have filled p orbitals.

179
10.15
The electron configuration of any of the noble gas elements
can be represented by the symbol of the element enclosed
in square brackets.

B 1s22s22p1 [He]2s22p1

Na 1s22s22p63s1 [Ne]3s1

Cl 1s22s22p63s23p5 [Ne]3s23p5
180
The electron configuration of
argon is 2 2 6 2 6
Ar 1s 2s 2p 3s 3p
The elements after argon are potassium
and calcium. Instead of entering a 3d
orbital, the valence electrons of these
elements enter the 4s orbital.
K 1s22s22p63s23p64s1 [Ar]4s1

Ca 1s22s22p63s23p6 4s2 [Ar]4s2


181
d orbital numbers are 1 less
than dthe period
orbital number
filling

Arrangement of electrons
according to sublevel being filled. 182
10.16
f orbital numbers are 2 less
than fthe period
orbital number
filling

Arrangement of electrons
according to sublevel being filled. 183
10.16
Period number corresponds with the
highest energy level occupied by
electrons in that period.
184
10.17
The
Thegroup
elements
numbers
of a family
for thehave
representative
the same
outermost
elements electron
are equalconfiguration
to the total number
except that
of
outermost
the electrons
electrons
are inindifferent
the atomsenergy
of the
levels.
group.
185
10.17

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