SOUNDNESS

and
VALIDITY
Objective
1. To answer the following questions:
a. When do we say that an argument is valid but not sound, and both valid an
sound?
b. What can ensure us of a sound argument?
c. An argument have all true premises and yet still have a false conclusion, its form
is said to be?
d. What is a valid argument?
2. Constructing examples of valid arguments with different premises and
conclusions
 VALID
– An argument is valid if the truth of
the premises logically guarantees
the truth of the conclusion.
– A valid argument doesn’t actually
mean the conclusion is true, just
that it logically follows from the
premises.
Example:
All elephants are mammals.
Jumbo is an elephant.
Therefore, Jumbo is a mammal.
| SOUND
– The premises are true and the
conclusion necessarily follows from
them, making the conclusion true
as well.
Example:
All tigers are mammals.
No mammals are creature w/ scales.
Therefore, no tigers are creatures with
scales.
Kinds of Argument
Valid Argument – doesn’t actually mean the conclusion is true, just that it
logically follows from the premises.

Invalid Argument – every argument with true premises and a false conclusion.

False Argument – an incorrect proposition that forms the basis of an argument on

syllogism. Since the premise is not correct, the conclusion drawn may be in error.

Contingent Argument – status of proposition that neither true under every

possible valuation nor false under every possible valuation
Arguments with Different Premises and Conclusions

 Valid argument with all false premises and true conclusion

I have a pet bat named Ko-omori. All birds can fly. Ko-omori is a bird.
Therefore, Ko-Omori can fly.
 Valid argument with all false premises and a false conclusion
The president of the United States must be younger than 35.
Rodrigo Duterte is the president of the United States.
So, Rodrigo Duterte must be younger than 5.
 Valid argument with all true premises and a true conclusion
Jaymart owns either a Honda or Mazda. Jaymart doesn’t own a Honda.
Therefore, Jaymart owns a Mazda.
 Invalid argument with all true premises and a true conclusion
The sun is hot. The ice is cold. Therefore God is the creator.
IDEAS
and
TERMS
 IDEAS

Ideas are considered the building blocks of knowledge. They are

constitutive elements that make up judgments, and judgments may
express either truth or error. Idea is the intellectual representation or
“image” of a thing. The term, idea, comes from the original Greek word
idea which means image. It is the same as the concept in the mind
although concepts are viewed sometimes as purified ideas.

The process of forming ideas will be of great help to us in understanding

their nature. It is formed in 3 stages. All knowledge starts with the
senses. From (1) external senses like sight and smell, it will pass through
our (2) internal senses like common sense and imagination. From there,
we will now have an (3) abstract of what we imagined. From those
stages, an Idea will be produced.
Properties of Ideas
– Comprehension:
The sum-total of all the thought-elements contained in an idea. The
comprehension of an idea involves understanding of its meaning, signification,
and thought-content. When one ask for the definition of the term, the answer
falls under comprehension.
– Extension:
The sum-total of the individuals and classes or groups to which an idea
can be applied. The extension of an idea expresses the application of the
thought-content to the individuals and groups in which it is found. When an
example is ask, the answer falls under extension.
Example:

COMPUTER

COMPREHENSION:
Electronic, Data gathering, Device

Computer – electronic data gathering device

EXTENSION:
Macbook Pro, Acer Aspire, HP Mininote
Types: According to Comprehension
a. SIMPLE – expresses a single conceptual feature, applicable to all if not most
Ex. BEING, EXISTENCE
b. COMPOUND – expresses several conceptual elements/features
Ex. MAN – rational animal
COMPUTER – electronic processing device.
c. ONE – expresses one thing, nature or formal feature
Ex. MAN, HOUSE
d. MULTIPLE – expresses explicitly a thing as modified by another thing.
Ex. POOR MAN, THREE STOREY HOUSE
e. CONCRETE – with a subject
Ex. metaphysical– reality (hunger)
physical– physiological (itch)
f. ABSTRACT – expresses only a nature or a formal feature without a subject.
Ex. justice, religiosity
g. ABSOLUTE – exists in itself and for itself
Ex. man, animal, minerals
h. RELATIVE – necessarily bears a relation to something else.
Ex. substitute teacher, vice-president
Types: According to Extension
a. SINGULAR - applies to a single member of a class
Ex. The President of the Republic of the Philippines
Diamond – the hardest mineral
b. UNIVERSAL - applies individually to all members of a class
Ex. Car (all applicable to SUV, Sedan)
Wine (all applicable to Merlot, Chardonnay, Shiraz)
c. PARTICULAR - applies to some members of a class
Ex. Half a dozen Quarter of a century
Several ladies Few devotees
d. COLLECTIVE - applies to a all members of a class counted as one.
Ex. UST Philets Batch 1968
Thomasians
e. TRANSCENDENTAL - applies to all members of all classes
Ex. Being, Truth
f. IDENTICAL – same conceptual features
Ex. 3 + 2 and 2 + 3
God = Absolute Being
g. EQUIVALENT – different conceptual features
Ex. 5 X 1 and 4 + 1
Salt and NaCl
h. PERTINENT – somehow related to each other
Ex. Freedom and Responsibility
Food and Drinks
i. IMPERTINENT – neither related nor opposed to each other
Ex. Toothpaste and Rooster
Love and Clearwater
j. COMPATIBLE – with features that may exist in a subject
Ex. Beauty and Intelligence
Faith and Reason
k. INCOMPATIBLE – with features that may not coexist in a subject
Ex. Square and Circle (in one figure)
Darkness and Light (in one space)
 TERMS

We have learned that man invented language for

communication purposes. Speech is the primary means by
which we communicate with one another. The language we use
is a body of symbols with which we articulate our feelings and
ideas. The basic unit of a language is the word. We call it -
TERM, from the Latin word terminus.

TERM is the verbal expression of an idea. It is an articulate

sound which serves as a conventional sign of an idea. It may
also be understood as an idea or group of ideas expressed in
words. Not all words, however, are terms; some words have no
referents, such as if, from, by, and in. But all terms are words,
for all terms are articulate sounds signifying things.
Kinds of Terms as regards to Quantity
a. Singular Term – stands for a single individual or object.
Ex. Pedro, Quezon City, This pen
b. Particular Term – stands for an indefinite number of individuals of a class.
Ex. Some students, Some animals, Some women
c. Universal Term – stands not only for a class as a whole but also for each member of
that class.
Ex. Man, Animal, Soldier, Rat, Cat
d. Collective Term – refers to a group or collection of objects or individuals regarded as
a unit. It may be universal, particular or singular.
Ex. Universal- Family, Army
Particular- Some family, Some Army
Singular- This family, This army
Kinds of Terms as regards to Incompatibility
a. Contradictory Terms – those wherein one affirms what the other denies.
Ex. Life-lifeless ; thing-nothing
b. Contrary Terms – represent the two extremes among objects of a series
belonging to the same class.
Ex. Hot-cold (temperature) ; black-white (color)
c. Private Terms – those wherein one signifies a perfection and the other denies
a perfection in a subject which naturally ought to posses it.
Ex. Health-sickness ; wealth-poverty
d. Relative Terms – those wherein one cannot be understood without the other.
Ex. Mother-child ; teacher-pupil ; husband-wife
Kinds of Terms as regards to
Definiteness of meaning
a. Univocal Term – predicated of two or more individuals or things in exactly the
same sense; admits of only one meaning.
Ex. Pedro is a man. Pablo is a man.
b. Equivocal Term – predicated of many in an entirely different sense; admits of
two or more meanings.
Ex. Bark: bark of a tree ; bark of a dog
c. Analogous Term – predicated of two or more things that is partly the same and
partly different sense.
Ex. Legs: legs of a woman ; legs of a table
Foot: foot of a mountain ; foot of a man
Kinds of Terms as regards to the
Nature of referents
a. Concrete Term – can be perceived by the senses; referent is tangible.
Ex. Man, dog, watch, house
b. Abstract Term – can be understood only by mind; referent is intangible. It may
denote the property of a thing, which is considered an entity by itself. It
denotes being, quality, quantity, or relationship.
Ex. Width, height, dullness, sharpness
c. Null or Empty Term – nothing actually existing to which it can be applied; no
actual referents but only imaginary ones.
Ex. Fairy, elf, tikbalang
Supposition of Terms
The exact meaning it has in relation to the other words in a
given sentence.
On the Basis of the Thing Signified:
1. Real Supposition – is present when the term stands for a thing which exists as a
physical object in the realm of realities.
2. Logical Supposition – is present when the term expresses an aspect of a concept
itself as it exists only in the mind.
3. Imaginary Supposition – is present when the term signifies something which can
exist only in the imagination.
4. Metaphorical Supposition – is present when the term signifies something which
can be true only by analogy to another.
5. Symbolic Supposition – is present when a term signifies something which is true
only from agreement of a group of men.
6. Material Supposition – is present when the term stands for itself insofar as it is a
verbal symbol.
On the Basis of the Extension:

1. Individual Supposition – is present when the term stands

for an individual person or thing.

2. Universal Supposition – is present when the term stands

for all the individuals of a given whole.

3. Particular Supposition – is present when a term stands

for a portion of a given whole or totality.

4. Indefinite Supposition – is present when a term stands

for unspecific number of individuals.
SOURCES:

BOOK:
Timbreza, F.T. (2007). LOGIC: Made Simple for Filipinos

Others Retrieved from:

https://www.iep.utm.edu/val-snd/
https://www.quora.com/Could-you-give-an-example-of-a-valid-argument-with
false-premises-and-a-true-conclusion
https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Contingency_(philosophy)
https://emilkirkegaard.dk/en/?p=1594
https://academic.csuohio.edu/polen/LC9_Help/1/14tfi.htm
https://criticalthinkeracademy.com/courses/what-is-a-good-argument/lectures
/1105072
https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deductive_reasoning
https://academic.csuohio.edu/polen/LC9_Help/1/14ffv.htm
https://www.slideshare.net/KarRamoso/idea-11720874
https://www.slideshare.net/JoelMiano/logicideas-terms