Pressure Measurement

Why measure pressure of a liquid?

1. For operational reasons, such as to monitor the distribution and

supply of water
2. To investigate hydraulic characteristics of water/liquid flow through
a pipeline. For example, it is important to know pressure and
energy loss in a pipeline supplying a town or city with water. Eg 70
m head of water is too much and 30 m of head is too low
 Pressure Measurement

Pressure of a liquid is usually measured using

1. Piezometer
2. Manometers
3. Bourdon Gauge
4. Other devices
 Pressure Measurement
Pressure Measurement

1. Piezometer

Atm pressure
Piezometric level

h pipe

.
P

P = gh (gauge pressure, i.e, Patm = 0)

 Pressure Measurement
Inverted U-Tube Manometer
Difference of pressure between two points

Air

h1
h2
pipe

.
P1 .
P2
 Pressure Measurement
Pressure Measurement

1. Piezometer

P1 = gh1+PA and P2 = gh2+PA

P1 – P2= gh1+PA - (gh2+PA) = g(h1-h2)

 P1 – P2= gh

Pressure of air PA does not matter

Differential head h for a piezometer usually should not exceed 2 m

 Pressure Measurement
Pressure Measurement
2. (U-tube )Manometers Pipe liquid

.
P

hm
X X

Lower surface of
seperation
Mercury
 Pressure Measurement
Pressure Measurement
2. (U-tube )Manometers
Open

γ1

h2
A

h1

(gauge
fluid)
 Pressure Measurement

2. (U-tube)Manometer

• The pressure in the pipe forces liquid out into the left limb of the
manometer,but the weight of the mercury in the right limb
balances the pressure in the pipe and prevents the pipe liquid
flowing around the left tube and out of the end of the right limb.
Density of mercury is 13.6 bigger than that of water. Mercury is
often used with the U-tube manometer and this means a short-U-
tube is needed

• when pipe pressure increases hm increases

• when pipe pressure decreases hm decreases
 Pressure Measurement

2. (U-tube)Manometer

How to calculate the gauge pressure at P

1. Draw a horizontal line through lower surface of seperation
between the liquids
2. Determine the pressure at level X-X in the left limb and in the
right limb
3. Equate the two pressures in the two limbs at X-X
 Worked example
Lower part of a U-tube manometer contains mercury
(m=13600 kg/m3). The pipe contains water (w=1000
kg/m3).
Determine the gauge pressure at P at the center of the pipe if
the manometer readings are as show below
 Pressure Measurement

water

.
P

Z = 0.5 m

Hm= 0.4 m
X X

Lower surface of
seperation
Mercury
 Worked example
Solution
Step 1: Draw a horizontal line X-X through the level surface of
seperation

Step 2:working upwards from X-X:

Pressure at level X-X in the LEFT limb is given by Px =gz + P
Pressure at the level X-X in the RIGHT limb is given by
Px = mghm

Step 3: Equate the pressures in the two limbs at X-X

i.e., Px = Px

Px =gz + P = mghm

P = mghm - gz = 13600x9.81x0.4 – 1000x9.81x0.5

= 48.5 x 103 N/m2
 Worked example
The U-tube manometer shown in the figure below is used to
measure pressure in pipeline as it passes over a crest of a
hill. The pipeline carries fresh water (w=1000 kg/m3). The
bottom of the u-tube contains mercury m=13600 kg/m3).
Taking atmospheric pressure as the equivalent of 10.3 m of
head of water, and with the readings shown in the diagram
determine the absolute pressure at the center of the
pipeline (at P)
 Pressure Measurement

water

.
P
Patm
ho = 400 mm

Hm= 100 mm

X X

Lower surface of
seperation
Mercury
 Worked example
Solution
Step 1: Draw a horizontal line X-X through the level surface of
seperation

Step 2:working upwards from X-X:

Pressure at level X-X in the LEFT limb is given by
Px =wghw + mghm + P
Pressure at the level X-X in the RIGHT limb is given by
Px = Patm = wghw
Step 3: Equate the pressures in the two limbs at X-X
i.e., Px = Px
 Worked example
Solution
Step 3: Equate the pressures in the two limbs at X-X
i.e., Px = Px
wgho + mghm + P = wghw
P = wghw -wgho- mghm

= wg(hw-ho)- mghm

=1000*9.81(10.3-0.4)-13600x9.81x0.1
=(101043-17265)N/m2
=83.8 x 103 N/m2
 Pressure Measurement
(Differential U-tube ) Manometer

• If the difference of pressure between two points in a pipe

is of interest, rather than the pressure at a single location
then a differential U- tube manometer is used.
• However the same principles as for the non-differential
manometer still applies.
 Pressure Measurement
(Differential U-tube )
Manometer
.
. P2
P1 Pipe liquid

Z2
Z1

hm

X X

Lower surface of
seperation
Mercury
 Pressure Measurement
Pressure Measurement
2. (U-tube )Manometers
γ3

(5) B

h3

γ1
γ2

A (1)
h2

h1
(2)

Figure 2.13: Differential U-tube manometer

 Pressure Measurement
(Differential U-tube ) Manometer

Left limb: Px = gz1+p1

Right limb: Px = mgzm+gz2+p2

Then Px = Px

gz1+ p1= mgzm+gz2+p2

P1-P2 = mgzm+gz2- gz1 = mgzm +g[z2-z1]

The pipe is not horizontal, but if horizontal then Z1 = Z2 + hm

And then

P1-P2 = mgzm +g[z2-(z2+hm]

P1-P2 = ghm[m-]
 Worked example

A differential U-tube is used to measure the change in

pressure between two points in a pipeline which carries oil
of specific gravity 0.8. The lower part of the U- tube
contains mercury of specific gravity 13.6. There is an
increase in elevation between the two points of 0.26 m. If
Z1 = 0.60 m, Z2 = 0.73 m and hm = 0.13 m, calculate the
difference in pressure.
 Worked Example
Solution

.
. P2 oil
P1

Z2 =0.73 m
Z1 =0.60 m

Hm=0.13 m

X X

Lower surface of
seperation
Mercury
 Worked example
Solution
Step 1: Draw a horizontal line X-X through the level surface of
seperation

Step 2:working upwards from X-X:

Pressure at level X-X in the LEFT limb is given by
Px =ogz1 + P1=0.8x1000x9.81x0.6 +P1
=4709+P1

Pressure at the level X-X in the RIGHT limb is given by

Px = mghm + ogz2 + P2
=13.6x1000x9.81x0.13+0.8x1000x9.81x0.73+P2
=23073 + P2

Step 3: Equate the pressures in the two limbs at X-X

i.e., Px = Px then 4709+P1 = 23073 + P2

P1-P2 = 23073 -4709 = 18 364 N/m2

 Pressure Measurement
Inverted U-Tube Manometer

Air

x x

Z1 Z2
Pipe
. liquid
a
P1 .
P2
 Pressure Measurement
(Inverted Differential U-tube ) Manometer

• We now talk about the upper surface of seperation.

• We calculate pressure at two limbs starting from the
bottom upwards
• Then we subtract the two pressures to find the differential
pressure.
 Pressure Measurement
(Inverted Differential U-tube ) Manometer

Left limb: P1 = gz1+gh + px

Right limb: P2 = AghA+gz2+px ( mass of air negligible,  A =0)

Then P2 = gz2+px

P1-P2 = gz1+gh +Px- gz2 - Px = g[h +z1-z2]

From the diagram a = Z2 - Z1  Z1 –Z2 = -a

P1-P2 = g[h -a], if pipe is horizontal then a = 0

 P1-P2 = gh
 Worked example

An inverted differential U-tube manometer is used to

measure the change in pressure between two points in a
pipeline. The pipe carries water (m =1000kg/m3). Above
the water is air, which is pressurised. The manometer
readings are Z1 = 100 mm, Z2 = 250 mm and h = 50mm.
Calculate the difference in pressure in N/m2.
 Worked Example
Solution

Air

x x

Z1 Z2
water
.
a
P1 .
P2
 Worked example
Solution
Step 1: Draw a horizontal line X-X through the upper surface
of seperation

Step 2:working upwards from pipe to X-X:

Pressure in the LEFT limb is given by
P1 =gz1 + Px=1000x9.81x0.1 +Px
=981+Px

Pressure in the RIGHT limb is given by

P2 = gz2 + gh + Px
=1000x9.81x0.25 +1000x9.81x0.05+Px
=2943 + Px

Step 3: subtracting and solving

P1-P2 = 981 + Px – 2943 -Px = -1.962x103 N/m2

 Worked example
Solution
wrong answer if just use
P1 – P2 = g(h-a)
a = Z2 – Z1 = 0.25 – 0.10 = 0.15 m
P1-P2 = 1000x9.81x(0.05-0.15)
= -0.981x103 N/m2
 Force on a Plane (flat): Vertically
Immersed Surface
 Remember P =F/A  F = PA, where P is the hydrostatic
pressure, A is the area in contact with liquid
 remember pressure varies with depth, P = gh
 Force on a Plane (flat): Vertically
Immersed Surface

h2
hG h1

gh1

G G D

gh2

L
Sewer
gate
 Force on a Plane (flat): Vertically
Immersed Surface
Pressure at the top of the gate is P = gh1 and at the
bottom of gate is P = gh2
 hence the average pressure on the gate is given by
P = (g(h1 +h2)/2, thus the force on the gate is

F = PxA = AXg(h1 + h2)/2

For a simple rectangular shape like the one above, (h1+h2)/2

is the depth to the center of area, that is the vertical distance
to the centroid, G, of the immersed body or surface.
This depth is represented by hG, hence
F = ghGA,
This equation can be applied to surfaces of any shape. For
other shapes other than a rectangle, depth to centroid is given
by the following table
 Force on a Plane (flat): Vertically
Immersed Surface
Shape Dimension Location of
Centroid
Rectangle Breadth, L D/2 from base
Height, D
Triangle Base length, L D/3 from base
Height, D
Circle Radius, R R4/4

Semi-circle Radius, R 4R/3

Whenever you are faced with calculating the horizontal hydrostatic force
On a plane, vertically immersed surface the equation is

F = ghGA
Force on a Plane (flat): Location of the
Resultant Force on a Vertical Surface

h/2

h G
P
h/3
 Force on a Plane (flat): Location of the
Resultant Force on a Vertical Surface
 The longer the arrows of the pressure intensity diagram, the
greater the pressure
The area at the bottom part of the diagram is much bigger
indicating that the resultant force would act below half the
depth.
Infact the resultant force acts horizontally through the
centroid of the pressure intensity diagram. For a triangular
pressure intensity diagram, then the center of pressure, P is
at h/3 from the bottom
Note that P is always below G.

However, as depth increases, P becomes closer to G for this

simple situation
With more complex problems there is no simple rule for
location of P, but hp, which is the vertical depth to the center
of pressure, P, is calculated as

hp = (Ig/AhG)+hG
 Force on a Plane (flat): Location of the
Resultant Force on a Vertical Surface
hp = (Ig/AhG)+hG

Where the term in brackets gives the vertical distance of P

below the vertical depth to the centroid of the immersed
surface, hG,, IG is the second moment of area
 Worked example

A rectangular gate is 2 m wide and 3 m high. It

hangs vertically with its top edge 1 m below the
water surface.
(a) Calculate the pressure at the bottom of the
gate
(b) Calculate the resultant hydrostatic force on the
gate
(c) Determine the depth at which the resultant
force acts
 Force on a Plane (flat): Vertically
Immersed Surface

hp
hG 1m

gh1

G G 3m

P
gh2

2m
Sewer
gate
 Worked example
Solution

(a) P =pgh = 1000x9.81x(3m+1m) = 39.24 x10 3 N/m2

(b) hG = 1 m + 3/2 m = 2.50 m, A = 3 m x 2 m = 6 m2
F =ghGA = 1000x9.81x2.50x6 = 147.15 x103 N

(c) hp = IG/AhG + hG, where IG = LD3/12 =2x33/12

=4.50 m4
hp =4.50m4/(6m2x2.50m) + 2.50 m =2.80 m
 Worked example
A lock on a canal is sealed by a gate that is 3.0 m wide. The
gate is perpendicular to the sides of the lock. When the
lock is used there is water on one side of the gate to a
depth of 3.5 m, and 2.0 m on the other side..
(a) What is the hydrostatic force on the two sides of the
gate?
(b) At what height from the bed do the two forces act?
(c) What is the magnitude of the overall resultant hydrostatic
force on the gate and at what height does it act?
Force on a Plane (flat): Vertically
Immersed Surface

3.5 m
F1 FR

2m
F2 YR
Y1
Y2

O
 Worked example
Solution

(a) Using F =ghGA

F1 = 1000x9.81x(3.5 m/2) x3.0 m x 3.5m= 180.26 x10 3 N

F2 = 1000x9.81x(2.0 m/2) x3.0mx 2.0m= 58.86 x10 3 N

(b) Since both pressure intensity diagrams are triangular,

both forces act at one third from the bed
Y1 = 3.5m/3 = 1.17 m, Y2 = 2.0 m/3 =0.67 m

(c) Overall resultant force FR = F1 – F2 = 121 .40 x 103 N

Taking moments about O to find the height YR of the resultant
121.40 x 103 x YR = 180.26 x103 x 1.17 - 58.86 x103 x 0.67,
hence YR = 1.41 m above the bed
 Force on a Plane (flat): Inclined,
Immersed Surface
 Similar in many respects to the previous situation but
not exactly the same.
 However, with flat surfaces immersed at an angle to a
liquid surface, there are three things to remember
1. The resultant force acts at right angles to the immersed
surface
2. The hydrostatic pressure on the inclined surface is caused
only by the weight of the liquid above it, so P = gh
3. When calculating the location of the resultant force on an
inclined surface, always use equation

IG IG
Lp   LG and not hp   hG
ALG AhG
 Force on a Plane (flat): Inclined,
Immersed Surface

h1 hG

hp
h2

F G

P
Force on a Plane (flat): Inclined,
Immersed Surface

D
lG

F G
lp
P
 Force on a Plane (flat): Inclined,
Immersed Surface

h1 hG
D
hp
lG
h2
F G
lp
F G P

P
 Force on a Plane (flat): Inclined,
Immersed Surface

 The pressure at the top of the rectangular, inclined

surface is gh1, while at the bottom is gh2.
 Average pressure intensity is

 h1  h2 
g    ghG
 2 

 Thus, as before F  ghG A

 However, one important thing is the resultant force on
the inclined surface, F, has a vertical and a horizontal
components.(see the previous figures)
 Worked example
A sewer discharges to a river. At the end of the sewer is a
circular gate with a diameter of 0.6 m. The gate is
inclined at an angle of 45° to the water surface. The top
edge of the gate is 1.0 m bellow the water surface.
calculate
(a) The resultant force on the gate caused by the water in
the river
(b) The vertical depth from the water surface to the centre of
pressure
 Force on a Plane (flat): Inclined,
Immersed Surface
Solution
River
45° 45°
1.0 m
1.0 m hG

0.6 m lG
Sewer Gate

lp

P
 Force on a Plane (flat): Inclined,
Immersed Surface
Solution

(a)Vertical height of gate 45°

= 0.6 x Sin (45°) = 0.424 m 1.0 m hG

Vertical depth to G = hG = 1.0 + lG

(0.424/2) = 1.221 m
lp
Area of gate , A = 3.14xD2/4 G

= 0.283 m2 0.424 m
P

F = ghGA
=1000x9.81x1.212x0.283 = 3365 N
 Force on a Plane (flat): Inclined,
Immersed Surface
Solution

(b) The slope length to G, 45°

LG = hG/Sin (45°) = 1.714 m

hP

For a circular gate, lG

hG

IG = 3.14xR4/4 = 3.14x(0.3)4/4 lp
=0.0064 m2 G

LP = (IG/ALG) + LG P

= (0.0064/ (0.283x1.714))+1.714m
= 1.727 m
Vertical distance to P, is
hp =Lp Sin (45°)
=1.727xSin (45°)=1.221 m
 Force on a Curved Immersed Surface

Vertical plane
C
Center of
curvature
FH
 Force on a Curved Immersed Surface
Calculation of the resultant force on a curved immersed surface is
given by the following steps
1. The resultant force acts at right angles to the curved surface.
This force can be thought of as having both a horizontal (FH) and a
vertical (FV) component

2. To calculate the horizontal component of the resultant force,

project the curved surface onto a vertical plane. This is effectively
what you would see if you looked at the curved surface from the front.
Calculate the force on this projected vertical surface as you would
any other vertical surface using FH =ghGA, where A is the area of
the projected vertical surface and not the area of the actual curved
surface

3.Calculate the vertical component of the resultant force by

evaluating the weight of the volume(V) of water above the curved
surface, that is FV =gV
 Force on a Curved Immersed Surface
4. The resultant force, F is given by F = (F2H +F2V)1/2

5. The direction of the resultant force can be found from

Tan() = Fv/FH
This gives the angle, , of the resultant to the horizontal.

6. Always remember that there is an equal and opposite force acting

on the other side of the surface. This fact comes in useful later,
because it is always easier to calculate the force on the upper
surface, even if this is not the surface in contact with the water
 Force on a Curved Immersed Surface
Worked Example
2.0m

1.5 m
hG
C

Fv
G 2.0m
FH
 Force on a Curved Immersed Surface
Worked Example
A surface consists of a quarter of a circle of radius 2.0m. It is located
with its top edge 1.5 m below the water surface. Calculate the
magnitude and direction of the resultant force on the upper surface

STEP 1: Project the curved surface onto a vertical plane and

calculate FH
FH = ghGA, where A is the area of the projected vertical surface
Since the length of the curved surface is not given, calculate the
force per meter length with L = 1.0 m
Thus A = 2 x 1.0 = 2 m2 per meter length
The value of hG is that for the proposed vertical surface
hG = 1.5 + (2.0/2) = 2.5 m.
FH = 1000x9.81x2.5x2.0 = 49.05 x 103 N/m
 Force on a Curved Immersed Surface
Worked Example
STEP 2: Calculate FV from the weight of water above the surface
FV = gV, where V is the volume of water above the curved surface
Again using 1 m length
V = ¼(x2.0x2.0) x 1.0 + 2.0x1.5x1.0 = 6.14 m3 per meter length

FV = 1000x9.81x6.14 = 60.23 x 103 N/m

 Force on a Curved Immersed Surface
Worked Example
A radial gate whose face is part of a circle of radius 5.0 m holds back
water as shown on the figure below. The sector of the circle
represented by the gate has an angle of 30° at its center. Water
stands to a depth of 2.0 m above the top of the upstream face of the
gate. The other side of the gate is open to the atmosphere. Determine
the magnitude and direction of the resultant hydrostatic force. The
gate is 3.5 m long

Air

2.0 m
5.0 m C
30°

water 5.0 m
Gate
 Force on a Curved Immersed Surface
Worked Example
Displaced
F H water V

2.0m
hG
E D
C
60°
G
5.0m 2.5 m
FH Fv
A B
4.33 m
 Force on a Curved Immersed Surface
Worked Example
STEP 1: Project the curved surface onto a vertical plane and
calculate FH
Vertical height of projection = BC = 5.0x Cos(60°) = 2.5 m
hG = 2.0 + (2.5/2) = 3.25 m, and A = 2.5 x 3.5= 8.75 m2
FH = g hG A=1000x9.81x3.25x8.75=278.97x 103 N
 Force on a Curved Immersed Surface
Worked Example
STEP 2: Calculate FV from the weight of water above the surface
in this case calculate the weight of the water that would be above
the gate if it was not there, that is the weight of the water displaced
by the gate. This is shown by AEFH in the diagram. The width of this
Area can be calculated as
AB = 5.0x Sin(60°) = 4.33 m, So DE = 5.00 – 4.33 = 0.67 m
The area ADE ( and subsequently AEFH) can be found by using
Geometry
Thus area sector ACE = (30/360) of a 5.0m radius circle
i.,e (30/360)xx5.0x5.0 = 6.54 m2
Area of triangle ACD = (1/2)x2.5x 4.33 = 5.41m2
Area ADE = 6.54 – 5.41 = 1.13 m2
Therefore the total area AEFH = 1.13 + o.67x2.0 = 2.47 m2
Volume of water displaced = V = 2.47 x 3.5 = 8.65 m3

FV = gV= 1000x9.81x8.65= 84.86 x 103 N

 Force on a Curved Immersed Surface
Worked Example