Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
AND
INSTRUMENTATION
UNIT 1
BASIC MEASUREMENT CONCEPTS
Measurement systems
Static and dynamic characteristics
Units and standards of measurements
Error analysis
Moving coil meters
Moving iron meters
Multimeters
Bridge measurements
Maxwell
Hay
Schering
Anderson
Wien bridge.
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SIGNIFICANCE OF MEASUREMENT
Importance of Measurement is simply and
eloquently expressed in the following
statement of famous physicist Lord Kelvin:
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“I often say that when you can measure
what you are speaking about and can
express it in numbers, you know something
about it; when you cannot express in it
numbers your knowledge is of meager and
unsatisfactory kind”
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INTRODUCTION
Measurement means, to monitor a process or a
operation and using an instrument, express the
parameter, quantity or a variable in terms of
meaningful numbers.
a) Mechanical
b) Electrical
Electronic Instruments.
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c)
MECHANICAL:
These instruments are very reliable for
static and stable conditions. But their
disadvantage is that they are unable to
respond rapidly to measurements of dynamic
and transient conditions.
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CONTD
ELECTRICAL:
It is faster than mechanical, indicating the output
are rapid than mechanical methods. But it depends on
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the mechanical movement of the meters. The response
is 0.5 to 24 seconds.
ELECTRONIC:
It is more reliable than other system. It uses
semiconductor devices and weak signal can also be
detected.
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Measuring instrument:
It is defined as the device for determining the value or
magnitude of a quantity or variable.
Electronic measurement:
It is the one which is based on electronic or electrical
principles for its measurement function.
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ADVANTAGES OF ELECTRONIC
MEASUREMENT
Most of the quantities can be converted by transducers
into the electrical or electronic signals.
Electronic signals can be amplified, filtered,
multiplexed, sampled and measured.
Measured signals can be transmitted over long
distance through cables or radio links, without any
loss of information.
Many measurements can be done simultaneously or in
rapid succession.
Electronic circuits can measure the events of very
short duration
Higher sensitivity, low power consumption and a
higher degree of reliability are the important features
of electronic instruments and measurements.
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FUNCTIONAL ELEMENTS OF AN
INSTRUMENT
Data Storage
&playback
element
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Primary Sensing Element:
An element of an instrument which makes first
contact with the quantity to be measured. In most cases
a Transducer follows primary sensing element which
converts the measurand into a corresponding electrical
signal.
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Variable Manipulation Element:
The level of the o/pt from the previous stage may
not be enough to drive the next stage. Thus variable
manipulation element manipulates the signal,
preserving the original nature of the signal.
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PERFORMANCE CHARACTERISTICS
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CALIBRATION
Calibration is the process of making an
adjustment or making a scale so that the reading
of an instrument agree with the accepted and
certified standard.
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STATIC CHARACTERSTICS
Accuracy
Precision
Resolution
Error
Sensitivity
Threshold
Reproducibility
Zero drift
Stability
Linearity
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ACCURACY:
DEGREE OF CLOSENESS WHICH THE INSTRUMENT READING
APPROACHES THE TRUE VALUE OF THE QUANTITY TO BE
MEASURED. IT INDICATES THE ABILITY OF AN INSTRUMENT TO
INDICATE TRUE VALUE OF THE QUANTITY.
D) Point Accuracy
It is specified at only one point of scale.
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PRECISION:
It is the measure of consistency or
repeatability of measurement.
It denotes the closeness with which individual
measurements are departed or distributed
about the average of numbers of measured
values.
High precision may not have high accurate
Types:
conformity
Number of significant figures.
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Conformity:
Error created due to limitation of scale reading is a
precision error.
Significant figures:
Precision is obtained from number of significant
figures.
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Error:
The algebraic difference between the indicated value
and the true value of the quantity to be measured is
called an error.
Error of 1 ut is negligible when measure in order of 1000 ut
Error of 1 ut is significant when measure in order of 5 ut
e = At – Am , where
e – error (or) absolute error
Am – measured value of quantity
At – true value of quantity
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Relative error:
absolute error
True value
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Sensitivity:
The ratio of the change in output of an instrument
to a change in the value of the quantity to be
measured.
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For manufactures
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Resolution means smallest measurable input change.
Threshold:
If the i/pt is slowly varied from zero, the o/pt does not
change until some minimum value of the i/pt is exceeded. This
minimum value of the i/pt is called threshold.
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LINEARITY
THE CLOSENESS TO WHICH A CURVE APPROXIMATES A
STRAIGHT LINE.
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Zero drift:
The deviation in the instrument output with
time from its zero value, when the variable
to be measured is a constant.
Reproducibility:
It is the degree of closeness with which a given
value may be repeatedly measured.
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Stability:
Lag
Dynamic error
STANDARD VARIATIONS IN I/PT ARE
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Linear change in i/pt. it changes at a constant rate wrt
time.
i/pt -> At u(t)
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i/pt is proportional to the square of the time & hence
represents constant acceleration
i/pt -> At2 u(t)
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It exist only at t=0 & zero otherwise
Area under it is its magnitude and if its unity it is
called delta function δ(t)
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i/pt which changes in acco9rdance with a sinusoidal
function of constant amplitude. Frequency is the
independent variable in this case.
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Speed of response:
It gives information about how fast the system
reacts to the changes in the input.
Fidelity:
it is defined as the degree to which an instrument indicates
the changes in the measured variable without dynamic error.
Lag:
Delay in the response of a system.
retardation lag: response of the system begins immediately
after a change in the variable has occurred.
time delay: response begins after some time called dead time,
after the application of input.
Dynamic error
• Difference between the true value of the variable to be
measured changing with time and the value indicated
by the measurement system assuming zero static error
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UNITS
It is necessary to specify type & magnitude for
the reading. Where unit represents the type of
the physical quantity and reading on the
instrument represents its magnitude
C.G.S
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UNITS
The S.I system of units is divided into 3 categories
Fundamental units
Supplementary units
Derived units
Fundamental units:
units which are independently chosen and not
dependent on any other units are called fundamental
units or base units
Ex: meter (m), kilogram (Kg), second (s), Ampere (A)
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Supplementary units:
Radian for the plane angle: (θ,Φ)
Plane angle subtended by an arc of a circle equal in
length to the radius of the circle.
Derived units:
These units are derived from fundamental and
supplementary units
Ex: velocity- m/s, acceleration- m/s2, force- Newton(N)
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MEASUREMENT STANDARDS
A standard of measurement is a physical representation
of a unit of measurement.
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TYPES OF STANDARDS
1. International standards
2. Primary standards
3. Secondary standards
4. Working standards
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INTERNATIONAL STANDARDS
These standards are maintained at the international
bureau of weights and measures and are periodically
evaluated and checked by absolute measurements.
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PRIMARY STANDARDS
They are maintained at national standard laboratories
in different countries.
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SECONDARY STANDARDS
Since primary standards are not available for outside
users, various industries need some reference.
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WORKING STANDARDS
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ERRORS
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SOURCES OF ERRORS
1. Faulty design of instrument
2. Insufficient knowledge of quantity and
design conditions
3. Improper maintenance of the
instrument.
4. Sudden change in the parameter to be
measured.
5. Unskilled operator
6. Effects of environmental conditions.
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TYPES OF ERRORS
static errors are classified as,
1. Gross error
2. Systematic error
3. Random error
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GROSS ERROR: (PERSONAL ERRORS)
Occurs due to carelessness of human while
reading, recording and calculating results.
Due to incorrect adjustments of instruments.
To eliminate error:
Take care while reading, recording and
calculating results.
Take 3 or more readings with 3 or more
persons.
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SYSTEMATIC ERROR
A constant uniform deviation of operation in
instruments known as systematic error.
Due to short comings and characteristics of the
material used in instrument like worn parts, ageing
effects etc;
Types:
a) Instrumental error
b) Environmental error
c) Observational error
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INSTRUMENTAL ERROR
shortcomings of instrument:
Due to mechanical structure of the
instruments.
Ex: Friction in bearings,
Irregular spring tension,
variation in air gap.
To eliminate error:
1. select proper instrument and select proper
procedure.
2. Identify effect of errors and correct it.
3. Calibrate the instrument.
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Misuse of instruments:
Ex: poor initial adjustments
improper zero setting
using leads of high resistance
Loading effects:
Ex: connecting a well calibrated voltmeter
across the 2 points of high resistance
circuit.
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ENVIRONMENTAL ERROR
They are due to
temperature changes
pressure changes
thermal e.m.f
stray capacitance
cross capacitance
To eliminate error:
1. proper correction factors given by the
manufacturer.
2. make arrangements to keep surrounding constant
like using A.C.
3. sealing the components to avoid dust, humidity.
4. providing magnetic or electrostatic shields.
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OBSERVATIONAL ERROR
errors made by observers
Ex: parallax error while reading a
meter, wrong scale selection
To eliminate error:
1. use instruments with mirrors.
2. knife edged pointers.
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RANDOM ERROR
Causes of errors which are unknown are
random errors.
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ERROR ANALYSIS
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STATISTICAL ANALYSIS
Arithmetic mean and median:
mean:
Median:
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Deviation from mean:
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Standard deviation:
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Variance:
mean square deviation
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