Torsion

Contents
Introduction
Net Torque Due to Internal Stresses
Axial Shear Components
Shaft Deformations
Stresses in Elastic Range
Normal Stresses
Torsional Failure Modes
Angle of Twist in Elastic Range
Design of Transmission Shafts

3-2
 Torsional Loads on Circular Shafts
• Interested in stresses and
strains of circular shafts
subjected to twisting couples or
torques
• Turbine exerts torque T on the
shaft

• Shaft transmits the torque to the

generator
• Generator creates an equal and
opposite torque 𝑻ሖ

3-3
 Net Torque Due to Internal Stresses
• The free body diagram of the of the portion BC of the
shaft must include the elementary shearing forces dF,
which is perpendicular to the radius of the shaft, that
portion AC exerts on BC as the shaft is twisted.
• The condition of equilibrium for BC requires that the
system of these elementary forces be equal to an
internal torque T, equal and opposite to T’.

• .

• .
 Net Torque Due to Internal Stresses
• Net of the internal shearing stresses is an
internal torque, equal and opposite to the
applied torque,

T    dF     dA

• Although the net torque due to the shearing

stresses is known, the distribution of the
stresses over each elemental area is not

• Distribution of shearing stresses is statically

indeterminate – must consider shaft
deformations

• Unlike the normal stress due to axial loads,

the distribution of shearing stresses due to
3-5
torsional loads can not be assumed uniform.
 Axial Shear Components
• Torque applied to shaft produces
shearing stresses on the faces
perpendicular to the axis.

• Conditions of equilibrium require the

existence of equal stresses on the faces
of the two planes containing the axis of
the shaft

• The existence of the axial shear

components is demonstrated by
considering a shaft made up of axial slats.
• The slats slide with respect to each other
when equal and opposite torques are
applied to the ends of the shaft.

3-6
 Shaft Deformations
• From observation, the angle of twist of the
shaft is proportional to the applied torque
and to the shaft length.
 T
L
• When subjected to torsion, every cross-
section of a circular shaft remains plane
and undistorted.
• Cross-sections for hollow and solid circular
shafts remain plain and undistorted
because a circular shaft is axisymmetric.
• Cross-sections of noncircular (non-
axisymmetric) shafts are distorted
when subjected to torsion.
 Shearing Strain
• Consider a circular shaft of length L and radius c
that has been twisted through an angle 
• Consider an interior section of the shaft. As a
torsional load is applied, an element on the
interior cylinder deforms into a rhombus.
• Since the circles defining two of the sides of the
element remain unchanged, the shearing strain g
must be equal to the angle between lines AB and
A’B

The shearing strain in a circular shaft

varies linearly with the distance from
3-8 the axis of the shaft
 Shearing Strain
It follows from that the shearing strain is
maximum on the surface of the shaft,
where  = c
c 
g max  and g  g max
L c
• Shear strain is inversely proportional to
the radius of the shaft
 Stresses in Elastic Range
• If the stress level is within the elastic limit then Hook’s Law applies:
  Gg
• Multiplying the previous equation by the shear
modulus,

Gg  Gg max
c

From Hooke’s Law,   Gg , so    max
c J  12  c 4
• Hence as long as the yield strength (or proportional
limit) is not exceeded in any part of a circular shaft,
the shearing stress in the shaft varies linearly with the
distance  from the axis of the shaft
• For a hollow circular shaft of inner radius c1 and
outer radius c2 , ρmin = c1 and c = c2

J  12  c24  c14 
• Recall that the sum of the moments from the internal stress
distribution is equal to the torque on the shaft at the section,

 
T    dA  max   2 dA  max J
c c

• The results are known as the elastic torsion formulas,

Tc T
 max  and  
J J

3 - 11
Problem 3.01
 Normal Stresses
• Consider the two elements a and b located on the
surface of a circular shaft subjected to torsion
• Since the faces of element a are respectively
parallel and perpendicular to the axis of the shaft,
the only stresses on the element will be the
shearing stresses (max = TC/J) Shaft axis

• The faces of element b will be subjected to a

combination of normal and shearing stresses
• Consider faces that are at 45o to the axis of the
shaft (BD and BC). The stresses on these faces
are max = TC/J
• The normal force F exerted on DC and the
corresponding normal stress are given by:
F  2 max A0 cos 45   max A0 2
F  max A0 2
 45o     max
A A0 2
 Torsional Failure Modes
• Ductile materials generally fail in
shear.
• Brittle materials are weaker in
tension than shear.
• When subjected to torsion, a
ductile specimen breaks along a
plane of maximum shear, i.e., a
plane perpendicular to the shaft
axis.

• When subjected to torsion, a

brittle specimen breaks along
planes perpendicular to the
direction in which tension is a
maximum, i.e., along surfaces at
45o to the shaft axis.
3 - 14
 Sample Problem 3.1
SOLUTION:
• Cut sections through shafts
AB and BC and perform static
equilibrium analysis to find
torque loadings

• Apply elastic torsion formulas

Shaft BC is hollow with inner and outer to find minimum and maximum
diameters of 90 mm and 120 mm, stress on shaft BC
respectively. Shafts AB and CD are
• Given allowable shearing
solid of diameter d. For the loading
stress and applied torque,
shown, determine (a) the minimum and
invert the elastic torsion
maximum shearing stress in shaft BC,
formula to find the required
(b) the required diameter d of shafts AB diameter
and CD if the allowable shearing stress
in these shafts is 65 MPa.
3 - 15
Sample Problem 3.1
SOLUTION:
• Cut sections through shafts AB and
BC and perform static equilibrium
analysis to find torque loadings

 M x  0  6 kN  m   TAB  M x  0  6 kN  m   14 kN  m   TBC

TAB  6 kN  m  TCD TBC  20 kN  m

3 - 16
 Sample Problem 3.1
• Apply elastic torsion formulas • In both of the shafts AB and CD,
to find minimum and maximum the magnitude of the torque is T = 6
stress on shaft BC kN.m and all = 65 MPa

c24  c14   0.060 4  0.045 4 

 
J
2 2 Denoting by c the radius of the shafts,
 13.92 10 6 m 4 we have
Tc Tc 6 kN  m
TBC c2 20 kN  m 0.060 m   max   65 MPa 
 max   2   J  c4  c3
J 13.92 10 6 m 4 2 2

 86.2 MPa c  38.9 10 3 m

 min c1  min 45 mm d  2c  77.8 mm

 
 max c2 86.2 MPa 60 mm  max  86.2 MPa
 min  64.7 MPa  min  64.7 MPa
3 - 17
 Angle of Twist in Elastic Range
• Recall that the angle of twist and maximum
shearing strain are related
c
g max 
L
• In the elastic range, the shearing strain and shear
are related by Hooke’s Law
 max Tc
g max  
G JG
• Equating the expressions for shearing strain
and solving for the angle of twist
TL

JG
• If the torsional loading or shaft cross-section
changes along the length, the angle of
rotation is found as the sum of segment
rotations
Ti Li
 
i J i Gi
3 - 18
 Statically Indeterminate Shafts
• Given the shaft dimensions and the applied torque,
we would like to find the torque reactions at A and B.

• From a free-body analysis of the shaft,

TA  TB  90 lb  ft
• The problem is statically indeterminate.
• However, TA and TB can be determined if we observe
that the total angle of twist of shaft AB must be zero,
since both of its ends are restrained
• Denoting by 1 and 2, respectively, the angles of twist
of portions AC and CB, we write
TA L1 TB L2 LJ
  1  2   0 TB  1 2 TA
J1G J 2G L2 J1
• Substitute into the original equilibrium
equation,
LJ
TA  1 2 TA  90 lb  ft
L2 J1 3 - 19
 Sample Problem 3.4
SOLUTION:
• Apply a static equilibrium analysis
on the two shafts to find a
relationship between TCD and T0

• Apply a kinematic analysis to

relate the angular rotations of the
gears
Two solid steel shafts are connected
• Find the maximum allowable
by gears. Knowing that for each
torque on each shaft – choose the
shaft G = 11.2 x 106 psi and that the smallest
allowable shearing stress is 8 ksi,
determine (a) the largest torque T0 • Find the corresponding angle of
that may be applied to the end of twist for each shaft and the net
shaft AB, (b) the corresponding angular rotation of end A
angle through which end A of shaft
AB rotates.
3 - 20
 Sample Problem 3.4

SOLUTION:
• Apply a static equilibrium analysis • Apply a kinematic analysis to
on the two shafts to find a relate the angular rotations of the
relationship between TCD and T0 gears

 M B  0  F 0.875 in.  T0 rB B  rCC

 M C  0  F 2.45 in.  TCD B 
rC
C 
2.45 in.
C
TCD  2.8 T0 rB 0.875 in.
 B  2.8C 3 - 21
 Sample Problem 3.4
• Find the T0 for the maximum • Find the corresponding angle of twist for
allowable torque on each shaft each shaft and the net angular rotation of
– choose the smallest end A

A / B 
TAB L 561lb  in.24in.


J AB G  0.375 in.4 11.2  106 psi
2

T c T 0.375 in.  0.387 rad  2.22o
 max  AB 8000 psi  0
 0.375 in.4
J AB TCD L 2.8 561lb  in.24in.
C / D  
 
2
T0  663 lb  in. J CD G  0.5 in.4 11.2  106 psi
2
TCDc 2.8 T0 0.5 in.  0.514 rad  2.95o
 max  8000 psi 
 0.5 in.4
 
J CD
2
 B  2.8C  2.8 2.95o  8.26o
T0  561 lb  in. T0  561 lb  in
3 - 22  A   B   A / B  8.26o  2.22o  A  10.48o
 Design of Transmission Shafts
• Principal transmission shaft • Determine torque applied to shaft
performance specifications at specified power and speed,
are: P  T  2fT
- power
P P
- speed T 
 2f
• Designer must select shaft • Find shaft cross-section which will
material and cross-section to not exceed the maximum allowable
meet performance shearing stress,
specifications without
Tc
exceeding allowable shearing  max 
J
stress.
J  3 T
 c  solid shafts
c 2  max
J

 4 4
c2 2c2

c2  c1 
T
 max
 hollow shafts

3 - 23
 Stress Concentrations
• The derivation of the torsion formula,
Tc
 max 
J
assumed a circular shaft with uniform
cross-section loaded through rigid
end plates.
• The use of flange couplings, gears and
pulleys attached to shafts by keys in
keyways, and cross-section
discontinuities can cause stress
concentrations
• Experimental or numerically
determined concentration factors are
applied as
Tc
 max  K
J

3 - 24
 Torsion of Noncircular Members
• Previous torsion formulas are valid
for axisymmetric or circular shafts

• Planar cross-sections of noncircular

shafts do not remain planar and
stress and strain distribution do not
vary linearly
• For uniform rectangular cross-
sections,
T TL
 max  
c1ab2 c2 ab3G

• At large values of a/b, the maximum

shear stress and angle of twist for
other open sections are the same as
a rectangular bar.

3 - 25
Static Indeterminacy
Solution