FM 13

CE - 4007
Fluid Mechanics - I
Dr. Anand Kr. Sinha

Professor (Civil and Environmental Engineering)
Birla Institute of Technology, Mesra
Monsoon Semester, 2017-2018 1

Fluid Mechanics - I
• Introduction
• Fluid Statics
• Kinematics of Fluid Flow
• Dynamics of Fluid Flow
• Laminar and Turbulent Flows
• Boundary Layer Concept
• Dimensional Analysis and Hydraulic Similitude

Fluid Mechanics - I
Portion up to Mid Semester Examination
• Introduction
• Fluid Statics
• Kinematics of Fluid Flow
Teachers Internal Assessment
• Term Paper Presentation – 15 Marks
• To be presented in the class in presence of all
students and the teacher
• Report of about ten to fifteen pages to be
submitted along with the presentation
Fluid Kinematics
• When the fluid is at rest, the only fluid
property of significance is specific weight.
• Whereas, when the fluid is in motion, various
other properties become significant.
• The flow of real fluids is of complex nature
and not always subject to exact mathematical
analysis. In some cases, the exact
mathematical analysis is possible by making
some simplifying assumptions.

Fluid Kinematics
• Fluid kinematics deals with the geometry of
motion of fluids without reference to the forces
causing the motion.
• Lagrangian Method – Any individual fluid particle
is selected and the observation is made about
this particle during its course of motion through
space.
• Eulerian Method – Any point in the space is
selected and the observation is made about
changes in velocity, density, pressure etc., which
take place at that point.
Fluid Kinematics
Velocity
• In solids, the velocity of the body as a whole is
measured.
• But in fluids, the motion is different at
different points of observation
𝑑𝑠 = displacement of fluid element along its
path
𝑑𝑡 = corresponding increment in time
Fluid Kinematics
Velocity at this point,
𝑑𝑠
𝑉 = lim
𝑑𝑡→0 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧
𝑢 = lim , 𝑣 = lim , 𝑤 = lim
𝑑𝑡→0 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡→0 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡→0 𝑑𝑡
𝑉 = 𝑓1 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧, 𝑡
𝑢 = 𝑓2 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧, 𝑡
𝑣 = 𝑓3 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧, 𝑡
𝑤 = 𝑓4 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧, 𝑡
Fluid Kinematics
• At a particular point, x, y, and z are constant.
The above equations indicate the variation of
u, v, and w with time ‘t’.
• If time ‘t’ is constant, then the above
equations give the variation of u, v, and w at
different points at a particular instant of time.
Types of Flow
• The fluid flows may be classified in several
ways.
Fluid Kinematics
i. Steady and Unsteady Flow
ii. Uniform and Non-uniform Flow
iii. 1-D, 2-D, and 3-D Flow
iv. Rotational and Irrotational Flow
v. Laminar and Turbulent Flow
Steady Flow
• Steady flow is that flow in which at any point in
the flowing fluid, the various characteristics
which describe the motion are independent of
time.

Fluid Kinematics
• However, these characteristics may be different
at different points.
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑤
= 0, = 0, =0
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡
𝜕𝑝 𝜕𝜌
= 0, =0
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡
Unsteady Flow
• Unsteady flow is that flow in which at any point in
the flowing fluid any one or all the characteristics
which describe the behavior of fluid in motion
change with time.
Fluid Kinematics
𝜕𝑉 𝜕𝑝
≠ 0, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑜𝑟 ≠0
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡
• Even the change in direction with respect to time
make the flow unsteady.
• Most of the practical flow problems involve only
steady flow conditions.
Uniform Flow
• Uniform flow is that flow in which the velocity of
flow does not change both in magnitude and
direction from point to point at any given time.

Fluid Kinematics
𝜕𝑉
=0
𝜕𝑠
Non-uniform Flow
• Non-uniform flow is that flow in which the
velocity of fluid changes from point to point at
any given time.
𝜕𝑉
≠0
𝜕𝑠
• All these four types of flow exist independent of
each other. So four types of combinations are
possible.
Fluid Kinematics
a) Steady Uniform Flow – flow of liquid through a
long pipe of constant diameter at constant rate.
b) Steady Non-uniform Flow – flow of liquid
through a tapering pipe at constant rate.
c) Unsteady Uniform Flow – flow of liquid through
a long pipe of constant diameter at variable rate.
d) Unsteady Non-uniform Flow – flow of liquid
through a tapering pipe at a variable rate.

Fluid Kinematics
3-D Flow
• Characteristics of flowing fluid are functions of
space and time.
• In general these may vary with coordinates x, y,
and z and time t.
• Such a flow is 3-D flow.
𝑉 = 𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧, 𝑡
2-D Flow
any two of the three coordinates and time t.
𝑉 = 𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑡

Fluid Kinematics
1-D Flow
any one of the three coordinates and time t.
𝑉 = 𝑓 𝑥, 𝑡
• Similar expressions may be written for other
characteristics.
• 3-D flow problems are complicated.
Rotational Flow
• If the fluid particles while moving in the direction
of flow rotate about their mass centres the flow
is known as rotational flow.
Fluid Kinematics
Irrotational Flow
• If the fluid particles while moving in the direction
of flow do not rotate about their mass centres
the flow is known as irrotational flow.
• A true irrotational flow exists only in case of flow
of an ideal fluid for which no tangential or shear
stresses occur.
• But the flow of real fluids may be assumed as
irrotational if the viscosity has little significance.
Fluid Kinematics
Laminar Flow
• Laminar flow is that flow in which various fluid
particles move in layers with one layer sliding
smoothly over adjacent layer.
• The flow of a viscous fluid may be treated as
laminar flow.
Turbulent Flow
• Turbulent flow is that flow in which the fluid
particles move in an entirely haphazard manner,
which results in a rapid and continuous mixing of
fluid leading to momentum transfer.
Fluid Kinematics
• In such a flow, eddies or vortices may be formed.
The velocity and pressure at any point are
fluctuating with respect to time.
• However, if the temporal mean values are
constant the flow may be considered as steady
flow.
• The occurrence of turbulent flow is more
frequent.
• Example of turbulent flow – natural streams,
artificial channels, water supply pipes, sewers etc.
Fluid Kinematics
Streamlines
• Streamlines are imaginary curve drawn
through a flowing fluid in such a way that the
tangent to it at any point gives the direction of
velocity at that point.
• The pattern of flow may be represented by a
series streamlines.
𝑣 𝑑𝑦
= 𝑇𝑎𝑛𝜃 =
𝑢 𝑑𝑥
Fluid Kinematics
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦
=
𝑢 𝑣
𝑢𝑑𝑦 − 𝑣𝑑𝑥 = 0
For 3-D flow,
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧
= =
𝑢 𝑣 𝑤
• Since the streamline is every where tangent to
velocity vector. There can be no component of
velocity at right angles to the streamline and
hence there can be no flow across the streamline.
Fluid Kinematics
• Steady flow – flow pattern does not change.
• Unsteady flow – flow pattern changes with time.
• Hence in case of unsteady flow, the streamlines
are to be regarded as instantaneous streamlines
representing an instantaneous flow pattern only.
Streamtube
• It is a tube imagined to be formed by a group of
streamlines passing through a small closed curve.
• There can be no flow across the bounding
surface. Therefore, a fluid may enter or leave a
streamtube only at its ends.
Fluid Kinematics
• If the cross sectional area of streamtube is
negligible, then it is termed as stream filament.
• Only in case of steady flow, a streamtube is fixed
in space.
Pathline
• It is the line traced out by a single fluid particle as
it moves over a period of time.
• This shows the direction of velocity of the fluid
particles at successive instants of time.
• In case of steady flow, the streamlines and
pathlines are identical.
Fluid Kinematics
• Whereas in unsteady flow the streamline may
shift in space from instant to instant.
Streakline
• It a line that is traced by a fluid particle
passing through a fixed point in a flow field.
• In case of steady flow, streakline is same as
streamline and pathline of a particle.
• In unsteady flow, a streakline at any instant is
the locus of end points of pathlines.
Fluid Kinematics
Basic Principles of Fluid Flow
i. Principle of conservation of mass –
continuity equation
ii. Principle of conservation of energy – energy
equation
iii. Principle of conservation of momentum –
momentum equation
Impulse (Force X time) = Change in momentum
Fluid Kinematics
Control Volume
• To apply these principles, a definite volume
with fixed boundary shape is chosen in space
along the fluid flow passage.
• This volume is known as control volume and
its boundary as control surface.
• In fact the use of Eulerian method implies the
use of control volume approach.

Fluid Kinematics
Continuity Equation
• It is the mathematical statement of the principle
of conservation of mass.
• Rate of increase of fluid mass within any region =
Rate at which the fluid mass enters the region –
Rate at which the fluid mass leaves the region
• However, in steady flow, the rate of increase of
fluid mass = 0
• Rate at which the fluid mass enters the region =
Rate at which the fluid mass leaves the region
Fluid Kinematics
Considering an elementary rectangular
parallelepiped element,
P = center of this element
𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧, 𝑢, 𝑣, 𝑤, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜌 are the values at P.
Mass of fluid passing per unit time through the
face area 𝛿𝑦, 𝛿𝑧 through point P = 𝜌𝐴𝑉 =
𝜌𝑢𝛿𝑦𝛿𝑧
Mass of fluid entering per unit time through the
𝜕 𝛿𝑥
face ABCD = 𝜌𝑢𝛿𝑦𝛿𝑧 − 𝜌𝑢𝛿𝑦𝛿𝑧
𝜕𝑥 2
Fluid Kinematics
Mass of fluid leaving per unit time through the
𝜕 𝛿𝑥
face A’B’C’D’ = 𝜌𝑢𝛿𝑦𝛿𝑧 + 𝜌𝑢𝛿𝑦𝛿𝑧
𝜕𝑥 2
Net mass of the fluid that has remained in the
element per unit time through faces ABCD and
𝜕 𝛿𝑥
A’B’C’D’ = 𝜌𝑢𝛿𝑦𝛿𝑧 − 𝜌𝑢𝛿𝑦𝛿𝑧 −
𝜕𝑥 2
𝜕 𝛿𝑥
𝜌𝑢𝛿𝑦𝛿𝑧 + 𝜌𝑢𝛿𝑦𝛿𝑧 =
𝜕𝑥 2
𝜕 𝜕
− 𝜌𝑢𝛿𝑦𝛿𝑧 𝛿𝑥 = − 𝜌𝑢 𝛿𝑥𝛿𝑦𝛿𝑧
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥

Fluid Kinematics
We can get similar expressions for other pair of
faces.
𝜕
= − 𝜌𝑣 𝛿𝑥𝛿𝑦𝛿𝑧, in Y direction
𝜕𝑦
𝜕
= − 𝜌𝑤 𝛿𝑥𝛿𝑦𝛿𝑧, in Z direction
𝜕𝑧
Net total mass retained in the element =
𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
− 𝜌𝑢 + 𝜌𝑣 + 𝜌𝑤 𝛿𝑥𝛿𝑦𝛿𝑧
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧

Fluid Kinematics
Rate of increase of mass of fluid within the element
𝜕 𝜕𝜌
= 𝜌𝛿𝑥𝛿𝑦𝛿𝑧 = 𝛿𝑥𝛿𝑦𝛿𝑧
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡
𝜕𝜌
𝛿𝑥𝛿𝑦𝛿𝑧
𝜕𝑡
𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
=− 𝜌𝑢 + 𝜌𝑣 + 𝜌𝑤 𝛿𝑥𝛿𝑦𝛿𝑧
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
𝜕𝜌 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
=− 𝜌𝑢 + 𝜌𝑣 + 𝜌𝑤
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
𝜕𝜌 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
+ 𝜌𝑢 + 𝜌𝑣 + 𝜌𝑤 = 0
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
Fluid Kinematics
𝜕𝜌
+ ∇. 𝜌𝑉 = 0
𝜕𝑡
𝜕𝜌
For steady flow, =0
𝜕𝑡
𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
𝜌𝑢 + 𝜌𝑣 + 𝜌𝑤 = 0 𝑜𝑟 ∇. 𝜌𝑉 = 0
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
For incompressible fluid,
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑤
+ + = 0 𝑜𝑟∇. 𝑉 = 0
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧

Fluid Kinematics
For 2-D flow,
𝜕𝜌 𝜕 𝜕
+ 𝜌𝑢 + 𝜌𝑣 = 0
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
For 1-D flow,
𝜕𝜌 𝜕
+ 𝜌𝑢 = 0
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥
• This equation does not include the cross sectional
area of flow. Hence, it is applicable to 1-D flow in
which the flow passage has a uniform cross
sectional area.

Fluid Kinematics
• However, the flow can be assumed as 1-D
even for curved flow passage with varying
cross sectional area, if the velocity of flow is
uniform at each section of the flow passage.
Considering a streamtube,
Mass of fluid passing per unit time through the
central section = 𝜌𝐴𝑉
Mass of fluid entering per unit time =
𝜕 𝛿𝑠
𝜌𝐴𝑉 − 𝜌𝐴𝑉
𝜕𝑠 2
Fluid Kinematics
Mass of fluid leaving per unit time = ቂ𝜌𝐴𝑉 +

Fluid Kinematics
𝜕 𝜕
𝜌𝐴 𝛿𝑠 = − 𝜌𝐴𝑉 𝛿𝑠
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑠
𝜕 𝜕
𝜌𝐴 + 𝜌𝐴𝑉 = 0
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑠
𝜕𝐴 𝜕𝑄
For incompressible 1-D flow, + =0
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥
𝜕
For steady flow, 𝜌𝐴𝑉 = 0 or 𝜌𝐴𝑉 = Const.
𝜕𝑠
𝜌1 𝐴1 𝑉1 = 𝜌2 𝐴2 𝑉2

Fluid Kinematics
For incompressible fluid, 𝐴𝑉 = Const.
𝐴1 𝑉1 = 𝐴2 𝑉2
𝐴𝑉 = 𝑄
Q = volume of fluid flowing through a section
per unit time or rate of flow or discharge
Unit – m3/s or cumec
• This equation can be applied to flow passages
of larger areas even if the velocity of flow at
any section is not uniform.
Fluid Kinematics
• The flow may be assumed to be divided in to
number of small streamtubes/ streamfilaments.
𝑄 = 𝑑𝑄1 + 𝑑𝑄2 + 𝑑𝑄3 + ⋯
= 𝑣1 𝑑𝐴1 + 𝑣2 𝑑𝐴2 + 𝑣3 𝑑𝐴3 + ⋯
= ∑𝑣𝑑𝐴 or ‫𝐴𝑑𝑣 ׬‬
𝑄 = 𝐴𝑉
1
𝑉 = න 𝑣𝑑𝐴
𝐴
V = average velocity of flow at any section
Fluid Kinematics
1
𝑉∝
𝐴
• In most of the fluid flow problems of pipe and
open channels the 1-D approach is used by
considering the average velocity at flow
sections.
• It can be applied to 2-D flow also by
considering the space between two adjacent
streamlines as a streamtube.

Fluid Kinematics
Acceleration of Fluid Particles
𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝑤
𝑎𝑥 = lim , 𝑎𝑦 = lim , 𝑎𝑧 = lim
𝑑𝑡→0 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡→0 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡→0 𝑑𝑡
𝑢 = 𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧
𝑑𝑢 𝜕𝑢 𝑑𝑥 𝜕𝑢 𝑑𝑦 𝜕𝑢 𝑑𝑧 𝜕𝑢
= + + +
𝑑𝑡 𝜕𝑥 𝑑𝑡 𝜕𝑦 𝑑𝑡 𝜕𝑧 𝑑𝑡 𝜕𝑡
𝑑𝑢 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢
lim =𝑢 +𝑣 +𝑤 +
𝑑𝑡→ 𝑑𝑡 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑡
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢
𝑎𝑥 = 𝑢 +𝑣 +𝑤 +
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑡
Fluid Kinematics
𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑣
𝑎𝑦 = 𝑢 +𝑣 +𝑤 +
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑡
𝜕𝑤 𝜕𝑤 𝜕𝑤 𝜕𝑤
𝑎𝑧 = 𝑢 +𝑣 +𝑤 +
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑡
𝜕𝑉
𝑎 = 𝑉. ∇𝑉 +
𝜕𝑡
= convective acceleration + local/ temporal
acceleration

Fluid Kinematics
• In steady flow the local acceleration is zero but
the total acceleration is not necessarily zero.
• However, in case of uniform flow, convective
acceleration is also zero.
• The acceleration vector has no specific
orientation with respect to streamline.
• It means that the acceleration vector at any point
has components both tangential and normal to
streamline.
Fluid Kinematics
• Tangential acceleration – due to change in
magnitude of velocity
• Normal acceleration – due to change in
direction of velocity
𝑑𝑉𝑠 𝑑𝑉𝑛
𝑎𝑠 = lim , 𝑎𝑛 = lim
𝑑𝑡→0 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡→0 𝑑𝑡
𝑉𝑠 = velocity along tangential direction
𝑉𝑛 = velocity along normal direction

Fluid Kinematics
𝑑𝑉𝑠 𝜕𝑉𝑠 𝑑𝑠 𝜕𝑉𝑠 𝑑𝑛 𝜕𝑉𝑠
= + +
𝑑𝑡 𝜕𝑠 𝑑𝑡 𝜕𝑛 𝑑𝑡 𝜕𝑡
𝑑𝑉𝑛 𝜕𝑉𝑛 𝑑𝑠 𝜕𝑉𝑛 𝑑𝑛 𝜕𝑉𝑛
= + +
𝑑𝑡 𝜕𝑠 𝑑𝑡 𝜕𝑛 𝑑𝑡 𝜕𝑡
𝑑𝑠 𝑑𝑛
lim = 𝑉𝑠 , 𝑎𝑛𝑑 lim = 𝑉𝑛
𝑑𝑡→0 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡→0 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑉𝑠 𝜕𝑉𝑠 𝜕𝑉𝑠 𝜕𝑉𝑠
𝑎𝑠 = lim = 𝑉𝑠 + 𝑉𝑛 +
𝑑𝑡→0 𝑑𝑡 𝜕𝑠 𝜕𝑛 𝜕𝑡
𝑑𝑉𝑛 𝜕𝑉𝑛 𝜕𝑉𝑛 𝜕𝑉𝑛
𝑎𝑛 = lim = 𝑉𝑠 + 𝑉𝑛 +
𝑑𝑡→0 𝑑𝑡 𝜕𝑠 𝜕𝑛 𝜕𝑡
Fluid Kinematics
For any streamline, 𝑉𝑛 = 0
𝜕𝑉𝑠 𝜕𝑉𝑠
𝑎𝑠 = 𝑉𝑠 +
𝜕𝑠 𝜕𝑡
𝜕𝑉𝑛 𝜕𝑉𝑛
𝑎𝑛 = 𝑉𝑠 +
𝜕𝑠 𝜕𝑡
𝛿𝑠 𝛿𝑉𝑛
𝑑𝜃 = =
𝑟 𝑉
𝛿𝑉𝑛 𝑉 𝜕𝑉𝑛 𝑉𝑠
= 𝑜𝑟 = , 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑉𝑠 = 𝑉
𝛿𝑠 𝑟 𝜕𝑠 𝑟
Fluid Kinematics
𝑉𝑠2 𝜕𝑉𝑛
𝑎𝑛 = +
𝑟 𝜕𝑡
For steady flow,
𝜕𝑉𝑠
𝑎𝑠 = 𝑉𝑠
𝜕𝑠
𝑉𝑠2
𝑎𝑛 =
𝑟
• If the streamlines are straight, 𝑟 = ∞, the
normal convective acceleration is zero.
Fluid Kinematics
• Normal convective acceleration is developed only
when the streamlines are curved.
• If the streamlines are straight and parallel then
even the tangential convective acceleration is
zero.
• If the streamlines are curved and equidistant
then the tangential convective acceleration will
be zero and there will be normal convective
acceleration only.
• Converging streamlines – acceleration
• Diverging streamlines - retardation
Fluid Kinematics
Rotational and Irrotational Motion
• When the fluid particles while moving in the
direction of flow rotate about their mass centres
then the flow is said to be rotational flow.
1 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑢
𝜔𝑧 = −
2 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
1 𝜕𝑤 𝜕𝑣
𝜔𝑥 = −
2 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
1 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑤
𝜔𝑦 = −
2 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥
Fluid Kinematics
• If at every point the rotation components,
𝜔𝑥 , 𝜔𝑦 , 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜔𝑧 are zero then the flow is
known as irrotational flow.
𝜕𝑤 𝜕𝑣
𝜔𝑥 = 0 ; =
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑤
𝜔𝑦 = 0 ; =
𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥
𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑢
𝜔𝑧 = 0 ; =
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
Fluid Kinematics
• The rotation of a fluid particle is always
associated with shear stress (because rotation
can be caused only by a torque and the same will
be produced by shear force).
Circulation and Vorticity
• The flow along a closed curve is called circulation.
• Mathematically, circulation is the line integral
taken completely around a closed curve, of the
tangential component of velocity vector.
• It is denoted by Γ (Greek Uppercase Gamma).

Fluid Kinematics
Γ = න 𝑉𝐶𝑜𝑠𝛼𝑑𝑠
𝑐
In terms of components, it may be written as,
Γ = න 𝑢𝑑𝑥 + 𝑣𝑑𝑦 + 𝑤𝑑𝑧

𝑐
Circulation around an elementary rectangle,
𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑢
Γ= − 𝛿𝑥𝛿𝑦
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
Fluid Kinematics
• Vorticity is the circulation per unit area.
• It is denoted by 𝜁 (Greek Zeta).
𝐶𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝜁=
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎
𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑢
𝜁= −
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
𝜁 = 2𝜔𝑧
• Vorticity is a vector quantity whose direction is
perpendicular to the plane.
• If vorticity is zero at all points then the flow is
irrotational.
Fluid Kinematics
Velocity Potential
• The velocity potential 𝜙 is a scalar function of
space and time such that its negative derivative
with respect to any direction gives the fluid
velocity in that direction.
𝜙 = 𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧, 𝑡
𝜕𝜙
𝑢=−
𝜕𝑥
𝜕𝜙
𝑣=−
𝜕𝑦
𝜕𝜙
𝑤=−
𝜕𝑧
Fluid Kinematics
𝑉 = −∇𝜙
• Negative sign indicates that 𝜙 decreases with
an increase in the value of x, y, z.
• That means the flow is always in the direction
of decreasing 𝜙.
Continuity equation for steady flow of an
incompressible fluid,
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑤
+ + =0
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
Fluid Kinematics
𝜕 𝜕𝜙 𝜕 𝜕𝜙 𝜕 𝜕𝜙
− + − + − =0
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑧
𝜕2𝜙 𝜕2𝜙 𝜕2𝜙
2
+ 2+ 2 =0
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
∇2 𝜙 = 0
This equation is called Laplace equation for 𝜙.
• Thus any function 𝜙 that satisfies the Laplace
equation will correspond to some case of fluid
flow.

Fluid Kinematics
1 𝜕𝑤 𝜕𝑣 1 𝜕2𝜙 𝜕2𝜙
𝜔𝑥 = − = − +
2 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 2 𝜕𝑦𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑧𝜕𝑦
1 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑤 1 𝜕2𝜙 𝜕2𝜙
𝜔𝑦 = − = − +
2 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑧𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥𝜕𝑧
1 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑢 1 𝜕2𝜙 𝜕2𝜙
𝜔𝑧 = − = − +
2 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 2 𝜕𝑥𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦𝜕𝑥
If 𝜙 is a continuous function then
𝜕2𝜙 𝜕2𝜙 𝜕2𝜙 𝜕2𝜙 𝜕2𝜙 𝜕2𝜙
= , = , =
𝜕𝑦𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑧𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦𝜕𝑥
Fluid Kinematics
𝜔𝑥 = 𝜔𝑦 = 𝜔𝑧 = 0
This condition is for the irrotational flow.
• The velocity potential exists only for irrotational
flow.
• Hence an irrotational flow is also known as
potential flow.
Stream Function
• Stream function 𝜓 is defined as a scalar
function of space and time such that its partial
derivative with respect to any direction gives the
velocity component at right angles (in anti-clock
wise direction) to this direction.
Fluid Kinematics
• The flow is considered to be 2-D flow.
𝜓 = 𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑡
𝜕𝜓
=𝑣
𝜕𝑥
𝜕𝜓
= −𝑢
𝜕𝑦
Some authors write as,
𝜕𝜓 𝜕𝜓
𝑢= , 𝑣=−
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥

Fluid Kinematics
𝜕𝜙 𝜕𝜓
𝑢=− =−
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
𝜕𝜙 𝜕𝜓
𝑣=− =
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥
𝜕𝜙 𝜕𝜓
=
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
𝜕𝜙 𝜕𝜓
− =
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥
1 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑢 1 𝜕 𝜕𝜓 𝜕 𝜕𝜓
𝜔𝑧 = − = − −
2 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 2 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦
Fluid Kinematics
1 𝜕2𝜓 𝜕2𝜓
𝜔𝑧 = 2
+ 2
2 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
This is the Poisson equation for 𝜓.
For irrotational flow, 𝜔𝑧 = 0
𝜕2𝜓 𝜕2𝜓
2
+ 2 =0
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
The above equation is Laplace equation for 𝜓.
The continuity equation for 2-D steady flow of
an incompressible fluid.
Fluid Kinematics
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣
+ =0
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
𝜕 𝜕𝜓 𝜕 𝜕𝜓
− + =0
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥
𝜕2𝜓 𝜕2𝜓
=
𝜕𝑥𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦𝜕𝑥
• Any function which is a continuous function is a
possible case of fluid flow.
• However, if 𝜓 satisfies the Laplace equation then
it’s a case of irrotational flow.
Fluid Kinematics
Flow Net
• The difference between the values of stream
function at two points represents the flow
across any line joining these points.
• When the points lie on the streamline the
difference between the stream functions at
these points is zero as there can be no flow
across the streamline.
𝜓1 − 𝜓2 = 0
Streamline is given by 𝜓 = 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
Fluid Kinematics
Similarly 𝜙 = 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 , represents a curve for
which velocity potential is same at every point.
Hence it is known as equipotential line.
For the curve, 𝜙 = 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
𝜕𝜙
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥 −𝑢 𝑢
𝑆𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 = = = =
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝜙 −𝑣 𝑣
𝜕𝑦
For the curve,𝜓 = 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
𝜕𝜓
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥 𝑣 𝑣
𝑆𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 = = = =−
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝜓 −𝑢 𝑢
𝜕𝑦 Monsoon Semester, 2017-2018 62
Fluid Kinematics
• The product of these slopes at the point of
intersection = - 1
• Therefore, the streamlines and the equipotential
lines intersect each other orthogonally at all
points of intersection.
• A grid obtained by drawing a series of streamlines
and equipotential lines is known as flow net.
• A flow net may be drawn for a 2-D irrotational
flow and it provides a simple and valuable
indication of the flow pattern.
Fluid Kinematics
• The flow is along the direction tangential to
streamlines or it is at right angles to the
equipotential line.
• The space between two adjacent streamlines may
be considered as flow channel and discharge
flowing through it is proportional to 𝜓2 − 𝜓1 .
Methods of Drawing Flow Net
Conditions
• The flow should be steady. For unsteady flow the
streamline pattern will be instantaneous and it
may change from time to time.
Fluid Kinematics
• The flow should be irrotational. The fluid
should be ideal. However, for rapidly
converging flow of fluids having low viscosity,
the flow net analysis may be adopted.
• The flow is not governed by gravity force.
Because under the action of gravity the shape
of free surface changes constantly. So, no fixed
flow net pattern can be obtained. However, in
such cases the flow net can be drawn after
fixing the shape of free surface boundary.
Fluid Kinematics
The following are the methods used for drawing
flow net.
Analytical Method
• The equations corresponding to the curves
𝜙 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜓 are obtained and are plotted with the
given boundaries (solution of Laplace equation).
Graphical Method
• In between the fixed boundaries a number of
streamlines are first drawn. A set of equipotential
lines are is then drawn so as to intersect the
streamlines perpendicularly and so spaced that
the streamlines and the equipotential lines form
approximate squares throughout the entire flow
net. Monsoon Semester, 2017-2018 66
Fluid Kinematics
• Check – (i) The diagonals are continuous and
together they form squares. (ii) The sides are
tangential to the inscribed circle.
Electrical Analogy Method
Relaxation Method/ Finite Difference Method
Hele Shaw/ Viscous Analogy Method
Uses of Flow Net
• For a given set of boundary configuration, there is
only one possible pattern of the flow of an ideal
fluid, and a correctly drawn flow net will
represent this pattern.
Fluid Kinematics
• It may be used for all irrotational flows with
geometrically similar boundaries.
• The spacing between the streamlines is
determined and the application of continuity
equation gives the velocity of flow at any point, if
the velocity of flow at any reference point is
known.
• The flow net analysis assists in determination of
efficient boundary shapes for which the flow
does not separate from the boundary surface.
Fluid Kinematics
• It may be applied to the flow of a real fluid within
certain limit.
• The viscosity effects of real fluids are most
pronounced at or near solid boundary and
diminish rapidly with the distance from the
boundary, where the flow net analysis may be
applied to the real fluids with sufficient accuracy.
• Converging/ accelerating flow – The actual flow
pattern approximates closely to that represented
by the flow net.
Fluid Kinematics
• Diverging flow – Separation of flow and
formation of eddies may be there. The
streamlines does not describe the actual pattern
of flow.
Limitation of Flow Net
• A flow net analysis indicates some velocity at the
boundary, but a real fluid must have zero velocity
adjacent to the boundary on account of fluid
friction or viscosity.
• As such the flow net analysis can not be applied
in the region close to the boundary where the
effects of viscosity are predominant.
Fluid Kinematics
• It can not be applied to a sharply diverging
flow.
• In case of flow past a solid body the flow net
gives fairly accurate picture for the upstream
part it gives little information at the rear
because of separation and eddies.
• The disturbed flow in the rear is known as
wake, the formation of which is not indicated
by a flow net.
Stagnation and Flow Separation
Fluid Kinematics
Problem – 1
For the following flows find the equation of the
streamline passing through (1, 1).
i. 𝑉 = 3𝑥𝑖 − 3𝑦𝑗
ii. 𝑉 = −𝑦 2 𝑖 − 6𝑥𝑗
Case – 1
𝑉 = 3𝑥𝑖 − 3𝑦𝑗
𝑢 = 3𝑥, 𝑣 = −3𝑦
Equation of streamline is
Fluid Kinematics
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦
=
𝑢 𝑣
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦
=−
3𝑥 3𝑦
On integration,
1 1
ln 𝑥 = − ln 𝑦 + 𝐶
3 3
1
ln 𝑥 + ln 𝑦 = 𝐶
3
ln 𝑥𝑦 = 𝐶
𝑥𝑦 = 𝐶
Fluid Kinematics
For streamline passing through (1, 1)
𝐶=1
𝑥𝑦 = 1
Case – 2
𝑉 = −𝑦 2 𝑖 − 6𝑥𝑗
𝑢 = −𝑦 2 , 𝑣 = −6𝑥
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦
− 2=−
𝑦 6𝑥
6𝑥𝑑𝑥 = 𝑦 2 𝑑𝑦
On integration,
Fluid Kinematics
3
𝑦
3𝑥 2 = +𝐶
3
3
𝑦
3𝑥 2 − =𝐶
3
For streamline passing through (1, 1)
1 8
𝐶 =3− =
3 3
9𝑥 2 − 𝑦 3 = 8
Problem – 2
For the velocity components in a fluid flow given by
Fluid Kinematics
𝑢 = 2𝑥𝑦
𝑣 = 𝑎2 + 𝑥 2 − 𝑦 2
Show that the flow is possible. Obtain the
relevant stream function.
𝑢 = 2𝑥𝑦
𝜕𝑢
= 2𝑦
𝜕𝑥
𝑣 = 𝑎2 + 𝑥 2 − 𝑦 2
𝜕𝑣
= −2𝑦
𝜕𝑦
Fluid Kinematics
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣
+ = 2𝑦 − 2𝑦 = 0
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
The continuity equation for steady
incompressible flow is satisfied. Hence the flow
is possible.
𝜕𝜓
𝑢=− = −2𝑥𝑦
𝜕𝑦
𝜓 = −𝑥𝑦 2 + 𝑓(𝑥)
𝜕𝜓
= −𝑦 2 + 𝑓 ′ (𝑥)
𝜕𝑥
Fluid Kinematics
𝑣 = −𝑦 2 + 𝑓 ′ 𝑥
𝑎2 + 𝑥 2 − 𝑦 2 = −𝑦 2 + 𝑓 ′ 𝑥
𝑓 ′ 𝑥 = 𝑎2 + 𝑥 2
3
𝑥
𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑎2 𝑥 + + 𝐶
3
3
𝑥
𝜓 = −𝑥𝑦 2 + 𝑎2 𝑥 + + 𝐶
3
Problem – 3
Values of 𝜙 for various flows are given.
Determine the corresponding values of 𝜓.
Fluid Kinematics
i. 𝜙 = 3𝑥𝑦
ii. 𝜙 = 4 𝑥 2 − 𝑦 2
iii. 𝜙 = 𝑥 + 𝑦 + 3
Case – 1
𝜙 = 3𝑥𝑦
𝜕𝜙 𝜕𝜓
𝑢=− = −3𝑦 = −
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
3 2
𝜓 = 𝑦 +𝑓 𝑥
2
𝜕𝜙 𝜕𝜓
𝑣=− = −3𝑥 = = 𝑓′(𝑥)
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥
Fluid Kinematics
𝑓 ′ 𝑥 = −3𝑥
3 2
𝑓 𝑥 =− 𝑥 +𝐶
2
3 2 3 2
𝜓 = 𝑦 − 𝑥 +𝐶
2 2
3 2
𝜓 = 𝑦 − 𝑥2 + 𝐶
2
Case – 2
𝜙 = 4 𝑥2 − 𝑦2
𝜕𝜙 𝜕𝜓
𝑢=− = −8𝑥 = −
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
Fluid Kinematics
𝜓 = 8𝑥𝑦 + 𝑓 𝑥
𝜕𝜙 𝜕𝜓
𝑣=− = 8𝑦 = = 8𝑦 + 𝑓′(𝑥)
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥
𝑓′ 𝑥 = 0
𝑓 𝑥 =𝐶
𝜓 = 8𝑥𝑦 + 𝐶
Case – 3
𝜙 =𝑥+𝑦+3
𝜕𝜙 𝜕𝜓
𝑢=− = −1 = −
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
Fluid Kinematics
𝜓 =𝑦+𝑓 𝑥
𝜕𝜙 𝜕𝜓
𝑣=− = −1 = = 𝑓′(𝑥)
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥
𝑓 ′ 𝑥 = −1
𝑓 𝑥 = −𝑥 + 𝐶
𝜓 =𝑦−𝑥+𝐶

FM 13

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CE - 4007

Dr. Anand Kr. Sinha

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Γ = න 𝑢𝑑𝑥 + 𝑣𝑑𝑦 + 𝑤𝑑𝑧

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