Analysis of dynamically

loaded structures
 Dynamic loading
 Fatigue ( Mechanical /thermal)-
Load that fluctuates with time (cyclic) repeated with same or
different levels of amplitude or of random type

 Vibration – Load that fluctuates over very short time

intervals with different levels of amplitude

 Impact loading- load that acts for a shot while but with
high amplitudes – pulses/transients

 Combination of the above

Amongst these Fatigue and vibration are the most
predominant type of loading in service.
Often vibration is treated as fatigue load cycles for
analysis
 Fatigue of Metals
 Fatigue accounts for nearly 75 % of all service
failures.
 A metal subjected to repetitive or fluctuating LOAD
/STRESS fails at much lower stress than that to cause
fracture on a single application of load.
 Failure occurs after considerable period of service.
 Fatigue failure occurs without obvious warning
 Crack originates from a stress concentration points,
notches etc
 Stages in Fatigue Process
1. Crack initiation – Early development of fatigue damage-
Can be removed by suitable thermal anneal.
2. Slip band crack growth – Deepening of initial crack on
planes of high shear stress Called stage I crack growth
3. Crack growth on planes of high tensile stress – Growth of
well defined crack in direction normal to maximum tensile
stress. Called stage II crack growth.
4. Ultimate ductile failure – Occurs when crack reaches
sufficient length so that remaining cross section can not
support the applied load. Called stage III crack growth.
 Micro-Deformation leading to Fatigue Crack

Fatigue deformation Fatigue deformation

Static deformation
leading to surface leading to slip band
notch (intrusion) extrusion
 Fatigue of Metals
• Fracture surfaces contain no gross deformation
and contains a smooth region due to repeated
rubbing action as crack propagates and a rough
region where member fails due to ductile manner.
• Fracture surface contains beach marks to show
progress of fracture.
 Fatigue of Metals

Factors that cause fatigue failure

 Maximum tensile stress of sufficiently
high magnitude-locally caused by
notches and stress concentrations.
 A large fluctuation in the applied stress.

 Sufficiently large number of cycles.

 FATIGUE
Assessment
ANALYSISof-Fatigue
DEFINITIONS
resistance-
AND TERMINOLOGY
S-N curve

The Fatigue resistance of a material is often

determined using fatigue tests under constant
amplitude loading cycles.
Fatigue tests are conducted at five stress
ranges ( min) levels till fracture of the specimen.
The results are plotted through a S-N curve
Stress, s (ksi) Fatigue Testing Test Data

Number of Cycles to Failure, N

 Factors influencing Fatigue

Factors influencing fatigue

 The ultimate strength of the material.
 The nature & amplitude of fluctuating stress
 Stress concentrations [notches, change a/c]
 Residual stress
 Temperature
 Metallurgical structure
 Environmental condition such as corrosion.
 Fatigue resistance of materials
It is observed that
beyond 5 million cycles
the curve becomes
asymptotic to X-axis
indicating a fatigue limit
beyond which the material
may not fail under similar
loading conditions .

In the high cycle region,

beyond 106 cycles all S-N curves for arc welded
curves merge together joints of aluminum plates
indicating the endurance made of different alloys
limit is almost
independent of base
metals especially in the
high cycle range
 Endurance
• Endurance strength is the stress level that a
material can survive for a given number of load
cycles.
• Endurance limit is the stress level that a material
can survive for an infinite number of load cycles.
• Estimate for Wrought Steel:
Endurance Strength = 0.50(Su)

• Most nonferrous metals (aluminum) do not have

an endurance limit.
 S –N Curve

steel m=C
N. s
Stress range

m
R = -1

Aluminum

Fatigue
limit

Log ( no of cycles to failure )

 Stress Cycles
sa smax  smin
sa 
2
Stress range

s
sm smax  smin
sm 
2
Pulsating tension s = smax - smin
cycles

smin = +ve value smax = +ve value; R = +ve value

 Partially Reversed / Tensile Mean
Case 2:

smax  smin
sa 
2

smax  smin
sm 
2

smax is tensile and smin is compressive

 Partially Reversed / Compressive Mean
Case 3:
smax  smin
sa 
2

smax  smin
sm 
2

smax is tensile and smin is compressive

 Compressive Stress / Compressive Mean
Case 4:

smax  smin
sa 
2

smax  smin
sm 
2

smax and smin are both compressive

 Type of stress cycles Alternating

sm = 0 sa = smax s = 2. smax
sa
Stress range

smin = - smax R = -1
s cycles

Cyclic loading. (a) Very low

amplitude acoustic vibration.
(b) High-cycle fatigue: cycling
well
below general yield, sy. (c) Low
cycle fatigue: cycling
abovegeneral yield (but below
the tensile strength sts).
 S –N Curve

sm1 sm1 < sm2 < sm3 < sm4

sm2 Effect of Stress level

sm3
Alt.
Stress
sm4

Log N
 S –N Curve
Log Normal distribution is usually assumed for p =0.1 to 0.9
Weibull distribution is suited for p= 0.01 or less

Probability of
failure -p
Stress range

p =0.99
p =0.9
p =0.5
p =0.1
p =0.01

Log N
 Fatigue resistance of materials
In the absence of notches
or stress concentration
points or stress risers the
material exhibits a typical
curve with a fatigue
endurance limit.
 In typical machined shafts
/parts with smooth surfaces,
crack initiation takes a long
time (number of cycles) and
so the total number of cycles
for failure would consist of
crack initiation and
propagation up to the critical
length.
 Fatigue resistance of materials
IN the case of structural
components due to stress
concentration effects there
are many locations where
the actual stress will be
much higher than the
applied stress.
 So cracks can easily get
initiated at such stress
concentration points and
hence the total life will be
mainly that required for the
propagation of the crack .
When stress concentration points are present [which is inevitable in
welded joints] the fatigue limit is reduced to a lower value The reduction
depends on the severity of the notch .
The fatigue stress concentration factor is defined as k f = se / se *
Fatigue resistance of weld joints
 Fatigue resistance of weld joints
Theoretical stress concentration factors for welded joints
 Effect of Residual Stress

With Residual stress

Stress
range

Tensile
residual
No residual stress stress

time
 Corrosion Fatigue
Simultaneous occurrence of fatigue loading and corrosive
environment brings down fatigue life more rapidly than for
fatigue loading of prior corroded surface
Materials having definite fatigue limit in air at room
temperature, show no indication of fatigue limit in corrosive
environment
Ordinary fatigue testing is unaffected by rate of testing
but in corrosive fatigue testing, lower testing speed causes
more damage
A reduction of 50% fatigue life due to environmental
effects can be expected
 Corrosion Fatigue

corrosive
da / dN

inert

Log (K)
 Effect of Temperature
Fatigue strength increases with decreasing
temperature even though metals become more
notch sensitive
Fatigue strength decreases with increasing
temperature. (except mild steel which shows
maximum fatigue strength at 200 to 300°C)
At higher temperatures, creep-fatigue interaction
becomes dominant. With temperature, trans-
crystalline fatigue damage changes over to inter-
crystalline creep damage.
Creep Fatigue interaction is complex. Fine grain
size is good for fatigue strength at low temperatures
but not good for creep at high temperatures.
 Goodman Diagram – for analysis of different fatigue stress cycles

sa / se + sm / so =1 Soderberg
sa / se + sm / su =1 Goodman
s a / s e + ( s m / s u )2 = 1 Gerber

se Gerber

Alt. Goodman
Stress,
sa

Soderberg

so su
Mean stress, sm
 Goodman Diagram – for analysis of different fatigue stress cycles
s U 600

-600 -500 -400 -300 -200 -100 0 100 200 300 400 500 600
s U -600 sYS 400 s U 600
 Goodman Diagram – for analysis of different fatigue stress cycles
s A = s U = 600
Goodman
Line
Applied stress magnitude sa

4
Soderberg
line
3

-600 -500 -400 -300 -200 -100 0 100 200 300 400 500 600
s U -600 sYS 400 s U 600

Mean stress - sm
 Low Cycle Fatigue

s B
+s
A
e A
p

s /2
O E 
- + C
st / /

s /2
2 2
A’
-s
t D

Elastic range Straining into plastic

range
Low Cycle Fatigue (Coffin Manson Relation)
Strain amplitude rather than stress
amplitude is held constant during
cycling
Examples are thermal cycling or
reversed bending with fixed
displacements
Log ( Plastic strain range)

p / 2 = f’ ( 2N)

c

Log (cycles to failure)

 Coffin Manson Relation
 / 2 = p / 2 + e / 2
p / 2 = f’ ( 2N)c
e / 2 = sf’/ E. ( 2N)b
f’ = Fatigue ductility coefficient. – approx
equal to true fracture strain for many metals
sf’ = Fatigue strength coefficient
c = Fatigue ductility exponent (-0.5 to -0.7)
b = Fatigue strength exponent (-05 to -0.12)
2N = Number of strain / load reversals
N = Number of cycles to failure
 Cyclic Strain Controlled Fatigue
Strain amplitude
rather than stress s
amplitude is held
constant during e p

s /2
cycling
Examples are 

thermal cycling or
reversed bending /2 /2

s /2
with fixed
displacements
Stress – strain loop
 Cyclic Strain Controlled Fatigue

s s

time time

Cyclic hardening Cyclic softening

s
Cyclically stable

time
 Fatigue Strain Life Curve

’f

Log (strain
amp)
c
1
total
s’f /E
elastic b
1
Nf plastic

1 2Nf
Log (strain reversals)
 Local Strain Approach – Neuber’s Rule

s,
e
s
s
s,
 S1 s

s

e e
 
P Nominal
Local
 Local Strain Approach – Neuber’s Rule
Stress concentration = Ks = s / s
Strain concentration = K =  / e
2 2
Kt = Kf = Ks . K
= (s / s) . ( / e)
s.  = const
= (s. . E / s. e. E) s
Since s = e. E,
2 s
(Kf . s) /E = s. 

 
 Effect of Stress Concentration on fatigue

Presence of a notch introduces:

 Increase of stress concentration at
the root of the notch
 Stress gradient from root of the
notch towards the centre of the
specimen
 Tri-axial state of stress
Effect of Stress Concentration on fatigue

s Un-notched

notched

se
se / Kf

Log N
 Stress Concentration
Kt = Theoretical stress concentration factor
= smax / snom
Kf = Fatigue strength reduction factor
q = Notch sensitivity factor
= (Kf – 1) / ( Kt – 1)
Kf depends on
- Severity of the notch
- Type of notch
- Material
- Type of loading
- Stress level
 Variation of Notch Sensitivity index
1.0

0.8
Notch sensitivity factor, q

0.6 Quenched and tempered steel

0.4
Annealed and normalised steel
0.2
Aluminium alloy
0
0 0.04 0.08 0.12 0.16 0.2
Notch radius
 Effect of Size

Fatigue reduction factor due to size effect

Dia, mm Cs
D <= 10 1.0
10 <= D <= 50 0.9
50 <= D <= 230 1.0 – ( D - 0.76) / 380
 Effect of Surface Roughness / Residual Stress

Nitriding and carburizing improve the fatigue

strength
Compressive residual stress at the surface
improves fatigue strength
Processes like peening are beneficial
Influence of grinding is mixed
Processes like TIG dressing have good influence
Improvements are greater for steeper stress
gradients like bending rather than for axial stress
Reduction factor of fatigue limit due to surface
treatments

1.0
Fine ground Mirror polished

0.8
machined
Surface factor

0.6
Hot rolled
0.4
As forged

Corroded – tap
0.2 water
Corroded – salt water
0
60 100 140 180 220 260
Tensile strength, ksi
 Approaches to Fatigue Design
Infinite life design - Applicable when component is
subjected to large no of cycles
Safe life design – Initially component is assumed to be
flaw free. Design of Bearings is a good example.
Fail safe design – Approach is that fatigue flaws will not
lead to failure before they can be detected and repaired.
Aircraft industry is an example. The design employs
multiple load paths and crack stoppers along with strict
regulations and criteria for inspection.
Damage tolerant design – The assumption is fatigue cracks
are present in the component. Fracture mechanics
calculations show the rate of crack growth and the cycles
to failure. The success of design depends on reliable NDT
and identification of critical areas.
Thank you