ELEMENTARY

SURVEYING 2
 Distance by Pacing
• Pacing
– Consists of counting the number of steps or paces
of a required distance.
– A pace is defined as the length of a step in walking.
It may be measured from heel to heel and from toe
to toe.
• Ex. Fig. 6-1
– To pace a distance it is necessary to first determine
the length of one’s pace referred to as Pace Factor.
– The length of a pace varies with different persons.
– A device called a pedometer, may be hand carried
to register the number of paces.
– Passometer
• Which is strapped to the leg of the pacer. This device
will register a pace by impact each time either foot.
• Problem No. 1
– A 45m course AB on a level ground was paced by a
surveyor for the purpose of determining his pace
factor. The no. of paces for each trial are taken
shown. Determine the pace factor of the person.
Trial Line Taped Distance #. of Paces
1 AB 45m 50
2 BA 45m 53
3 AB 45m 51
4 BA 45m 53
5 AB 45m 52
6 BA 45m 53
 Distance by Taping
• The use of graduated tape is probably the
most common method of measuring or laying
out horizontal distances.
• Taping consists of stretching a calibrated tape
between two points and reading the distance
indicated on a tape.
 Distance by Tachymetry
• Tachymetry
– Is another procedure of obtaining horizontal
distances.
– Based on the optical geometry of the instruments
employed and is an indirect method of
measurement.
– A transit or theodolite is used to determine
subtended intervals and angles on a graduated
rod.
• Stadia Method
– Provides a rapid means of determining horizontal
distances. Introduced by James Watt of Scotland.
– The stadia constant C is the distance from the
center of the instrument to the principal focus.
– D1 = ks + C
• Subtense Bar Method
– Is a convinient and practical device used for quick
and accurate measurement of horizontal
distances.
• Ex. Figure of Subtense Bar Method
• Ex. Figure 6-3
• Problem No. 2
– A stadia rod held at a constant point B is sighted by
an instrument setup at A. The upper and lower
stadia hair readings were observed as 1.3m and 0.9m
respectively. If the stadia interval factor K is 100 and
the instrument constant © is zero. Determine the
length of line AB.
• Problem No. 3
– The following subtended angles were read on a 2-m
long subtense bar using a theodolite; 0 °54’13”, 0
°22’20”, 0 °32’06” and 0 °9’46”. Compute the
horizontal distance from the theodolite to each
position of the bar.
 Distance by Graphical and Mathematical
Methods
• By graphical or mathematical methods,
unknown distances may be determine through
their relationship with known distances
geometrically.
 Distance by Mechanical Devices
• Odometer
– Is a simple device that can be attached to a wheel for
purpose of roughly measuring surface distances.
• Measuring Wheel
– A measuring wheel is a very simplified operation to an
odometer except that it is a more portable and self-
contained measuring device.
• Optical Rangefinder
– An optical rangefinder operates on the same principle
as a rangefinder on single-lens reflex camera.
 Distance by Photogrammetry
• Refers to the measurement of images on a
photograph.
• The type of photograph used are those taken
from an aircraft with the axis of the camera
pointed vertically towards the terrain
photographed.
CORRECTION APPLIED FOR THE MEASURING DISTANCE
1) TEMPERATURE CORRECTION (+ OR - )
Ct = K (T1 - T2) (L)
K = 0.000016 m/C or 0.0000645 ft/ F
T1 = Temperature when the length of tape is L
T2 = During measurement

2) PULL CORRECTION (+ OR -)
Cp

P2 = Actual pull durig measurement

P2 = Apllied pull when the length of the tape is L
A = Cross sectional area of the tape
E = Modulus elasticity of the tape

3) SAG CORRECTION ( - )
Cs =

w = Weight of the tape in lb/ft or kg/m

L = Unsupported length of tape
P= Actual pull of tension applied
4) SLOPE CORRECTION
C slope =

N = S - C3
H = Horizontal distance
S = Inclined distance
h = Difference in elevation at the end of the tape
5) SEA LEVEL REDUCTION
B’ = (B) (l-h/R)
B = Horizontal distance corrected from
temperature, SAG, and Pull.
B’ = Sea level distance
h = Average altitude of observation
R = Radius of Curvature
NORMAL TENSION
Pu =

P = applied normal tension

W = Total weight of tape
P1 = Tension at the tape is standardized
A = Area
 TAPE TOO LONG
1) Add correction when measuring distance
2) Subtract correction when laying out distance

TAPE TOO SHORT

3) Subtract correction when measuring distance
4) Add correction when laying out distance

BREAKING TAPE
Is a standard practice to hold the tape horizontally above
ground and to plumb at one another ends when taping on sloping
on uneven ground.
 SLOPE TAPING
Taped measurement maybe directly along
the slopes when ground is of uniform and
fairly smooth.

ERROR IN MEASUREMENT OF DISTANCES

1) Tape not standard length.
2) Imperfect alignment.
3) Tape not horizontal.
4) Tape not stretched.
5) Imperfection of observation.
6) Variation in tension/pull.
7) Variation in temperature.
8) Effects on SAG
 SURVEYS WITH TAPE
1) ERECTING PERPEDICULAR LINE

1.Chord Bisection Method

 MEASURING ANGLE WITH TAPE =
2) MEASURING ANGLE WITH TAPE
 3) LAYING OF ANGLES BY TAPE

LAYING OF ANGLES USING CHORD TAPES

4) DETERMENING OBSTRUCTION DISTANCE

BY PHYTAGOREAN THEOREM
 SAMPLE PROBLEMS:

2) The foundation of the building is to be 10.50 x 15.75m. if an old 15m

metallic tape known to be 15.025m long is used in setting out in corners. what
measurements must be made?
Solution:
3) A rectangular lot was measured using a 30-m metallic tape which was
later found out to be 8mm short. the recorded dimensions are 128.5m long
by 95.45 wide. what is the error in the area?
SOLUTION:
4) A line was measured by a 100m tape found out to be 400m- long. it was found out
that the first pin was displaced 20cm. to the left and the second pin was displaced 30cm
to the right and the third pin was stuck 30cm to the left. determind the line ab.

SOLUTION:
5) A 100m steel tape is used to measure the distance of a line and found to be
1539.38m long during the measurement, the tape is supported at the ends ladder a poll
of 10kg and the observed mean temp is 31c. the tape is of standard length at 20c and a
tension of 12kg. the cross sectional area of the tape is 0.035cm2 the k is 0.0000116*c
and the modulus of elesticity of steel is 2.0 x 106 kg/cm2 the tape weighs 1.5kg determine
the following.
a) ct temp
b) cp pull
c) cs sag
d) corbected length of the line
SOLUTION:
 Accuracy and Precision
• Accuracy and Precision
– Are two terms which are constantly used in surveying,
however their correct meanings often misunderstood.
– Accuracy indicates how close a given measurement is the
absolute or true value of the quantity measured.
• Ex. A line known or accepted to be 100.00m long is measured
twice with a steel tape. The first measurement is said to be
100.003m while the second is 99.995m.
– Precision refers to the degree of refinement and
consistency with which any physical measurement is made.
• Ex. Refer to Fig. 4-1 Page 37.
 Most Probable Value
• MVP
– From the theory of probability a basic assumption is that the
most probable value of a group of repeated measurements
made under similar conditions of arithmetic mean or the
average.

Mpv = x = ∑X/n = (x1+x2+x3+x4…..)/n

Where: mpv or x = is the most probable value of the quantity

measured, ∑X is the sum of the individual measurements , and
N= is the total number of observations made.
• Residual
– Which is sometimes referred to as the deviation, is
defined as the difference between any measured
value of a quantity and its most probable value or

v = x – Xbar

Where : V= is the residual in any measurement, x is a

measurement made of a particular quantity and xbar is
the most probable value of the quantity measured.
• Probable Error
– Is a quantity which, when added to and subtracted
from the most probable value, defines a range
within which there is a 50 percent chance that the
true value of the measured quantity lies inside the
limits thus set.

Pes = ±0.6745 (∑V2/n-1)0.5

Pem = ±0.6745 (∑V2/n(n-1))0.5