MAGNETISM OF ROCKS AND

MINERALS
How do rocks record paleomagnetic information?

Paleomagnetism

Rock Magnetism

Solid State Physics Petrology Mineralogy

 Outline

Basics of magnetism (today)

Magnetic minerals

Magnetization processes in rocks

aleksey.smirnov@yale.edu
Basics of magnetism
Everything should be made
as simple as possible. P. Weiss
But not simpler.

A. Einstein H. Onnes
P. Ehrenfest

P. Langevin

At a conference on
magnetism in
Leiden, 1920
(from Physics Today)
 Magnetic field

attraction

N S N S

repulsion

N S S N

The field of a force – a property of the space in which the force acts
Magnetic field (force lines)

N S

Magnetic field is not a central field (no free magnetic charges)

 Magnetic field definitions

B – magnetic induction
Two quantities describing
a magnetic field
H – magnetic intensity

In vacuum: B = µ0H (Système Internationale, SI)

µ0 = 4π · 10-7 N A-2 - the permeability of free space
(the permeability constant)

B=H (cgs: centimeter, gram, second)

 Magnetic induction (B) units

Tesla
FL = q(v X B) Gauss

v
SI: Tesla (T) [N A-1 m-1]

q
FL cgs: Gauss (G) [dyne-1/2 cm-1]

B 1 γ (gamma) =10-5 Gauss

Lorentz force (FL )
1 Tesla =104 Gauss
Ampere

Magnetic intensity (H) units

Ørsted

SI: B = µ0H , hence H = B/µ0

[H] =
[B]
=
N A-1 m-1 A
= m
[µ0] N A-2

cgs: Ørsted (Oe)

1 A/m = 4π/103 Oersted

 Magnetic moment (M)
No free magnetic poles can exist, hence the dipole field is the simplest
configuration

Real source of magnetism is moving electrical charges (electrical currents)

Thin bar magnet Electric Uniformly

(dipole) current loop magnetized
sphere
Magnetic moment (M) units

Emu

m = AIn
A – area, I – current, n – unit vector
m

I SI: [m] = Am2

cgs: [m] = emu
1 Am2 =103 emu
Interaction with magnetic field

B
aligning torque:
m = pd
m = AIn +p τ = m B sinθ
θ d θ
-p
Magnetic field of a current loop (dipole)

=AI
2µ0 m z
Baxial =
4πz3 m

decreases as the cube of

distance
The Earth as a big magnet

MEarth ≈ 8∙1022 Am2

Earth magnetic field

at the surface:
≈ 5 ∙ 10-5 T (0.5 G)
Magnetic fields in the universe
Sun surface: ~10-4 T (~10 G)

Sun spot: 10-2 - 10-1 T (~102-103 G)

At Earth’s orbit: ≈ 5∙10-9 T (~10-5 G)

Neutron Star: ~108 T (~1012 G)

Magnetar: ~1011 T (~1015 G)
(strongest known field)

Galactic field: ~10-10 - 10-9 T (~10-6 – 10-5 G)

MAGNETIZATION AND THE MAGNETIC FIELD INSIDE A MATERIAL
Filling a free space with matter…
Rigorous consideration requires quantum-mechanical approach… We go simple…

Morbital Mspin

nucleus e-

Orbital magnetic moment Spin magnetic moment

Bohr magneton: Atomic moment = orbital

µB = 9.274 ∙ 10-24 Am2 moment + spin moment
MAGNETIZATION AND THE MAGNETIC FIELD INSIDE A MATERIAL

Net magnetic moment of a volume V:

mi
mi
mi
mtotal = ∑ mi
mi i
mi mi
Magnetization - the magnetic
mi mi
mi mi moment per unit volume
mi mi mi

mi
mi M = mtotal /V
mi mi mi
mi A m2 A
SI: [ M ] = m3 = m
volume = V cgs: emu / cm3
1 A m-1 =103 emu/cm3
MAGNETIZATION AND THE MAGNETIC FIELD INSIDE A MATERIAL

In a magnetizable material the induction (B) has two sources:

1. Magnetizing field H (external sources)
2. Set of internal atomic moment, causing magnetization M

B = µo (H + M)

B = µo H – free space (M = 0)
 Magnetic susceptibility

If M and H are parallel and the material is isotropic:

M=κH
κ – magnetic susceptibility (dimensionless in SI)

κ is a measure of the ease with which the

material can be magnetized
 Magnetic permeability

M=κH
B = µo(H + M) = µoH (1 + κ) = µoµH
µ = 1 + κ - magnetic permeability
µ is a measure of the ability of a material
to convey a magnetic flux
MAGNETIC UNITS AND CONVERSIONS
 Magnetic properties of materials
Pauli’s exclusion principle: each possible electron orbit can be
occupied by up to two electrons with opposite spins

me me me

e- e- e-

∑ mspin = 0 ∑ mspin ≠ 0