Electronics, Digital Logic and

Design

Dr. Irfan Uddin

Digital Fundamentals
ELEVENTH EDITION

CHAPTER 1
Introductory
Concepts
• Analog quantity is one having
continuous values
 E.g. Temperature, time, pressure,
distance and sound
• Digital quantity is one having a discrete
set of values
FIGURE 1-1 Graph of an analog quantity (temperature versus time).
FIGURE 1-2 Sampled-value representation (quantization) of the analog quantity in Figure 1–1. Each value
represented by a dot can be digitized by representing it as a digital code that consists of a series of 1s and 0s.
 The digital advantage

• Digital data can be processed and

transmitted more efficiently and reliably
than analog data
• Digital data has a great advantage
when storage is necessary
• Noise (unwanted voltage fluctuations)
does not affect digital data nearly as
much as it does analog signals
FIGURE 1-3 A basic audio public address system.
FIGURE 1-4 Basic block diagram of a CD player. Only one channel is shown.
Questions
 Binary digits

• Each of the two digits in binary system,

1 and 0 is called a bit (binary digit)
• In digital systems, two different voltage
levels are used to represent the two
bits as HIGH for 1 and LOW for 0
• Positive logic or negative logic
FIGURE 1-6 Logic level ranges of voltage for a digital circuit.

CMOS
High: 2V to 3.3V
Low: 0V to 0.8 V
FIGURE 1-7 Ideal pulses.
FIGURE 1-8 Nonideal pulse characteristics.
 Period and Frequency

• A periodic pulse waveform is one that repeats

itself at a fixed interval, called a period (T)
• The frequency (f) is the rate at which it
repeats itself and is measured in hertz (Hz)
• A nonperiodic pulse waveform, does not
repeat itself at fixed intervals and may
composed of pulses of randomly differing
pulse widths and/or randomly differing time
intervals between the pulses
Equations
FIGURE 1-9 Examples of digital waveforms.
 Home Work

• Example 1-1
Example 1-1
FIGURE 1-11 Example of a clock waveform synchronized with a waveform representation of a sequence of bits.
 The Clock

• In digital systems, all waveforms are

synchronized with a basic timing
waveform called the clock
• The clock is a periodic waveform in
which each interval between pulses
(the period) equals the time for one bit
FIGURE 1-12 Example of a timing diagram.
 Data Transfer

• Data refers to groups of bits that

convey some type of information
• Binary data, which are represented by
digital waveforms, must be transferred
from one circuit to another within a
digital system or from one system to
another in order to accomplish a given
purpose
FIGURE 1-13 Illustration of serial and parallel transfer of binary data. Only the data lines are shown.
 Home Work

• Example 1-2
Questions
 Logic

• Several propositions, when combined,

form propositional, or logic, functions
• The light is on only if the bulb is not
burned out and the switch is on
• A circuit that performs a specified logic
operation (NOT, AND, OR) is called a
logic gate
FIGURE 1-16 The basic logic functions and symbols.
FIGURE 1-17 The NOT function.
FIGURE 1-18 The AND function.
FIGURE 1-19 The OR function.
Questions
• The three basic logic elements AND, OR and NOT
can be combined to form more complex logic
circuits
• Some common functions:
 Comparison
 Arithmetic
 Code conversion
 Encoding
 Decoding
 Data Selection
 Storage
 Counting
FIGURE 1-20 The comparison function.
FIGURE 1-21 The addition function.
FIGURE 1-22 An encoder used to encode a calculator keystroke into a binary code for storage or for
calculation.
FIGURE 1-23 A decoder used to convert a special binary code into a 7-segment decimal readout.
FIGURE 1-24 Illustration of a basic multiplexing/demultiplexing application.
 Storage function

• To retain binary data for a period of time

• Some are short-term and some are long-
term storage
• Flip-flops: Stores one bit
• Registers: Group of bits can be stored
• Semiconductor Memories: Large number
of bits, such as RAM or ROM
• Magnetic memories: mass storage of
binary data. Hard disk, CDs, DVDs,
Magnetic tape
FIGURE 1-25 Example of the operation of a 4-bit serial shift register. Each block represents one storage “cell”
or flip-flop.
FIGURE 1-26 Example of the operation of a 4-bit parallel shift register.
 Counter

Count events represented by changing

levels or pulses
Questions
 Integrated Circuit (IC)

• A monolithic IC is an electronic circuit

that is constructed entirely on a single
chip of silicon
• All the components that make up the
circuit – transistors, diodes, resistors and
capacitors – are an integral part of that
single chip
 IC

• Fixed-Function Logic:
• The logic functions are set by the
manufacturer and cannot be altered
• Programmable Logic:
• Requires both software and
hardware
• Can be programmed to perform
specified logic functions by the
manufacturer or by the user
FIGURE 1-38 Cutaway view of one type of fixed-function IC package (dual in-line package) showing the chip
mounted inside, with connections to input and output pins.
 IC Packages

• IC packages are classified according to the

way they are mounted on printed circuit
(PC) boards
• Through-hole mounted
 Have pins that are inserted through holes in
the PC board and can be solders to conductors
on the opposite side. E.g. dual in-line package
(DIP)
• Surface mounted (SMT)
 Holes are not necessary.
FIGURE 1-39 Examples of through-hole and surface-mounted devices. The DIP is larger than the SOIC with
the same number of leads. This particular DIP is approximately 0.785 in. long, and the SOIC is approximately
0.385 in. long.
FIGURE 1-40 Examples of SMT package configurations. Parts (e) and (f) show bottom views.
FIGURE 1-41 Pin numbering for two examples of standard types of IC packages. Top views are shown.
 Complexity classifications for
Fixed-Function ICs
• Small-Scale Integration (SSI)
 Up to 10 gates, flip-flops
• Medium-Scale Integration (MSI)
 10-100 gates, encoders, counters, registers,
multiplexers etc.
• Large-Scale Integration (LSI)
 100-10,000 gates, memories
• Very Large-Scale Integration (VLSI)
 10,000-100,000 gates
• Ultra Large-Scale Integration (ULSI)
 More than 100,000 gates
 IC technologies

• Transistors
 MOSFETs (metal-oxide semiconductor
field-effect transistors
 Bipolar junction transistors
• Circuit technology that uses MOSFETs is
known as CMOS (Complementary MOS)
• Circuit technology that uses bipolar
junction transistors is known as TTL
(Transistor-transistor logic)
• BiCMOS = CMOS + TTL
• SSI and MSI are generally available in
both CMOS and TTL
• LSI, VLSI and ULSI are available in
CMOS or NMOS, because it requires
less area and consumes less power
Questions
 Programmable logic

• Advantages compared to fixed-logic

functions
• Use much less space
• Designs can be readily changed
without rewiring or replacing
components
• Logic designs can generally be
implemented faster and with less
cost
FIGURE 1-29 Programmable logic hierarchy.
 SPLD

• One SPLD can replace up to ten fixed-

function ICs and their interconnections
• Two categories
• PAL (Programmable Array Logic)
• Programmed one time
• GAL (Generic Array Logic)
• Basically a PAL but can be
programmed many times
FIGURE 1-30 Block diagrams of simple programmable logic devices (SPLDs).
FIGURE 1-31 A typical SPLD package. Generally has 24 to 28 pins.
 CPLD

• CPLD is a device containing multiple SPLD

• LAB – Logic Array Block
• PIA – Programmable Interconnection
Array
• CPLDs can be used to implement,
encoders, decoders, multiplexers,
demultiplexers and adders
FIGURE 1-32 General block diagram of a CPLD.
FIGURE 1-33 Typical CPLD plastic quad flat packages (PQFP).
 FPGA

• Generally more complex and has much

higher density that CPLD
• Three basic blocks:
• Logic block
• Programmable Interconnection
• Input/Output (I/O) blocks
FIGURE 1-34 Basic structure of an FPGA.
 FPGA

• Fine-grained FPGA
• When the logic blocks are relatively
simple
• Coarse-grained FPGA
• Logic blocks are larger and more
complex
FIGURE 1-35 A typical ball-grid array (BGA) package. More than 1000 input and output pins.
 Programming Process

• SPLD, CPLD or FPGA can be thought as a

“blank slate” on which we implement a
specified circuit or system design using a
certain process
FIGURE 1-36 Basic setup for programming a PLD or FPGA. Graphic entry of a logic circuit is shown for
illustration. Text entry such as VHDL can also be used.
(Photo courtesy of Digilent, Inc.)
FIGURE 1-37 Basic programmable logic design flow block diagram.
Questions
 Troubleshooting

• The process of systematically isolaing,

identifying and correcting a fault in a
circuit or system
• Variety of instruments are available for
use in troubleshooting and testing
FIGURE 1-42 Typical digital oscilloscope with voltage probe.
Used with permission from Tektronix, Inc.
Comparisons of analog and digital oscilloscopes
Basic operation of Analog Oscilloscopes
FIGURE 1-43 Block diagram of a digital oscilloscope.
(Photo courtesy of Digilent, Inc.)
FIGURE 1-44 A typical digital oscilloscope front panel. Numbers below screen indicate the values for each
division on the vertical (voltage) and horizontal (time) scales and can be varied using the vertical and horizontal
controls on the scope.
Used with permission from Tektronix, Inc.
FIGURE 1-45 Comparison of an untriggered and a triggered waveform on an oscilloscope.
FIGURE 1-46 Displays of the same waveform having a dc component.
An oscilloscope voltage probe
FIGURE 1-47 Probe compensation conditions.
 The Logic Analyzer

• Used for measurements of multiple digital signals

and measurement situations
• Oscilloscope have 2 or 4 input channels
• Logic analyzers are available from 34 to 136
input channels
• Use oscilloscope when amplitude, frequency, rise
or fall time, overshoot and delay times need to
be measured
• Use logic analyzer when logic levels of a large
number of signals need to be determined
FIGURE 1-50 Typical logic analyzer.
Used with permission from Tektronix, Inc.
FIGURE 1-51 Simplified block diagram of a logic analyzer.
FIGURE 1-52 Two logic analyzer display modes.
FIGURE 1-53 A typical multichannel logic analyzer probe.
Used with permission from Tektronix, Inc.
 Signal Generators

• Also known as pulse generators and

pattern generators
• Designed to generate digital signals
with precise edge placement and
amplitude and to produce the streams
of 0s and 1s needed to test computer
busses, microprocessors and other
digital systems
FIGURE 1-54 Typical signal generators.
Used with permission from Tektronix, Inc.
Logic pulsor and Logic probe
FIGURE 1-56 Typical bench-type dc power supply.
Used with permission from Tektronix, Inc.
FIGURE 1-55 Typical DMMs. (Digital Multimeter)
Used with permission from (a) B+K Precision®; (b) Fluke
Questions
FIGURE 1-28 Block diagram of a tablet-bottling system.