CHAPTER 3

SCIENTIFIC METHODS
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Scientific method outlines a series of steps for answering
questions.
The process of science blends two main types of exploration:
1. Discovery Science
2. Hypothetico-deductive science

Discovery Science
Lead to important conclusions based on a type of logic called
induction or inductive reasoning.
Through induction, generalizations are derived based on
observations.
Example: The sun rises in the east
All organisms are made of cells
Hypothetico-deductive Methods
Hypothetic = hypothesis : a tentative answer to a well-framed
question – an explanation on trial
A scientific hypothesis makes predictions that can be tested by
recording additional observations or by designing experiments
Deductive reasoning: refers to the use of deductive logic to test a
hypothesis
Induction : reasoning from a set of specific observations to reach
a general conclusion
Deduction : reasoning from a set of general premises to reach a
specific result. Deductive testing takes the form of “If….then”
logic.

Example – If all organisms are made of cells (premise 1)

and humans are organism (premise 2)
then human are composed of cells (deductive
prediction about a specific case)
In the process of science, the deduction usually takes the form of
predictions about what outcomes of experiments or observations we
should expect if a particular hypothesis (premise) is correct. We then
test the hypothesis by performing the experiment to see whether or
not the results are as predicted.
Two important qualities of
scientific hypothesis:
1. Hypothesis must be
testable (some way to
check the validity of the
idea)
2. Hypothesis must be
falsifiable
(some observation or
experiment that could reveal
if such an idea is actually
not true)
Example:
About THEORY…
When a hypothesis has been repeatedly verified by
observation and experimentation and combines with
other confirmed hypothesis to help explain an
important aspect of a field of investigation, the
collection of related hypothesis are considered as a
supported theory
Spontaneous Generation Theory : Most living organisms arose
directly from inanimate materials
Observation : Flies arose directly from decayed meat that covered
with maggots – the larval stage of flies
Question : Where is the origin of maggots?
Hypothesis : Maggots arose only from eggs deposited by flies
and not from meat.
Prediction : If this hypothesis is correct, the meat without flies
will not have any maggots
Experiment : 2 sets of 4 vessels containing dead snake, some fish,
some eels separately. 1 set was sealed and 1 set was
exposed to the air
Result : The decaying meat in each of the open vessel was teeming with
maggots. The meat in the sealed vessel had no maggots
Interpretation : Closed vessel had no maggot because flies were unable to reach
the meat. However, what if the maggots failed to develop in the sealed vessels
because of a lack o fresh air rather than the absence of flies?
Variable 1 – presence or absence of flies
Variable 2 – presence of absence of air
Additional experiment :

Result :
Interpretation : Maggots would not develop in the net-covered vessels, even
though the meat had been fully exposed to the air
Conclusion : Maggots appeared only from the deposited eggs of flies
HYPOTHESIS WAS ACCEPTED
3.2 Dependent / Independent variable

Variables are conditions or factors that can vary or may be

varied
Independent variable (manipulated variable) : the one that is
systematically changed in an experiment
Dependent variable : is the effect of out come that is measured
in an experiment
Example – Activity of an enzyme at different temperature
Independent variable : temperature
Dependent variable : rate of reaction
Controlled variable : one that are kept constant
or controlled at set levels
3.3 Experimental Analysis
One essential aspect of a scientific experiment is that it can be repeated by
other scientists working independently.
To conduct a controlled experiment, biologist/scientist divide a test
population of organisms into an experimental group and a control group.
Example: Consider tests to determine whether the food additive red dye
#2 poses a cancer risk
Rat population

Experimental group (test Control group (Control experiment)

experiment)
-received food without red dye #2
-received food containing red dye #2

Result : Red dye #2 did indeed increase the incidence of cancer in rats
Therefore, will increase cancer in human as well because rats ≈ human
Ideally, the experimental and control groups differ only in
the one factor the experiment is designed to test – in our
example the red dye
Results are often variable and need statistical analysis
before conclusion can be made
The conclusion may lead to the hypothesis being
accepted, modified or rejected.
Even if results support a hypothesis, it is accepted only
tentatively because it can never be proved completely
However, it only needs a single contrary observation to
refute a hypothesis (prove it wrong or incomplete)
3.4 Units of measurement, S.I. units

Length:
km, m, cm, mm, μm, nm

Mass:
kg, g, mg, μg

Volume:
L, mL, μL, cm3, mm3

Temperature:
oC, oF