CHAPTER 3

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˜ A memory unit is an integral part of any microcomputer, and its
primary purpose is to hold instructions and data. The major design
goal of a memory unit is to allow it to operate at a speed close to
that of a microprocessor. However, the cost of a memory unit is so
prohibitive that it is practically not feasible to design a large
memory unit with one technology that guarantees high speed.
Therefore, to seek a trade-off between the cost and the operating
speed, a memory system is usually designed with different
technologies, such as solid state, magnetic, and optical.
˜ In a broad sense, a microcomputer memory system can be divided
into three groups:
1. Microprocessor memory
2. Primary or main memory
3. Secondary memory

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registers are used to hold temporary results when a computation is in
progress. Also, there is no speed disparity between these registers and the
microprocessor because they are fabricated using the same technology.
However, the cost involved in this approach limits a microcomputer
architect to include only a few registers in the microprocessor.
˜ Main memory is the storage area in which all programs are executed.The
microprocessor can directly access only those items that are stored in
main memory.
˜ Therefore, all programs must be within the main memory prior to
execution. CMOS technology is normally used in main memory design. The
size of the main memory is usually much larger than processor memory,
and its operating speed is slower than that of processor registers. Main
memory normally includes ROMs and RAMS.
˜ Electromechanical memory devices such as hard disks are used extensively
as microcomputer·s 
  
   





˜ The storage capacity of a typical hard disk ranges from 5 MB to several
gigabytes.The rotational speed of the hard disk is typically 3600 rpm. These
secondary memory devices access stored data serially. Hence, they are
significantly slower than main memory. Hard disk is a popular secondary
memory device. Programs are stored on disks in files. Secondary memory
stores programs in excess of the main memory. Secondary memory is also
referred to as     
 







 
 the secondary memory directly, so to execute these
programs the microcomputer must transfer them to its main memory by a
program called the 
  

˜ Programs in hard disk memories are stored in tracks. A track is a
concentric ring of programs stored on the surface of a disk. Each track is
further subdivided into several sectors. Each sector typically stores 512 or
1024 bytes of information.
˜ The secondary memory typically uses magnetic media, except for optical
memory, which stores programs on a plastic disk. CD (compact disc)
memory and DVD (digital video disc) memory are examples of popular
optical memory used with microcomputer systems. CD memory uses an
infrared laser whereas DVD memory uses a red laser. Since a red laser has
a shorter wavelength than an infrared laser, DVD memory provides a
larger storage capacity than CD memory. Typical optical memories include
CD-ROM, CD-RW, DVD-ROM, and DVDRAM.
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˜ The main or external memory (or simply, the memory) stores both
instructions and data.
˜ For 8-bit microprocessors, the memory is divided into a number of
8-bit units called  


 





  



  
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contains 2 bytes (16 bits). A
memory word is identified in the memory by an address. For
example, the Pentium microprocessor uses 32-bit addresses for
accessing memory words.
˜ This provides a maximum of 232 = 4,294,964,296 = 4 GB of
memory addresses, ranging from 00000000,, to FFFFFFFF,, in
hexadecimal.
˜ An important characteristic of a memory is whether it is volatile or
nonvolatile.
˜ The contents of a volatile memory are lost if the power is turned
off. On the other hand, a nonvolatile memory retains its contents
after power is switched off. ROM is a typical example of nonvolatile
memory. RAM is a volatile memory unless backed up by batteries.
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˜ Some microprocessors, such as the Intel
Pentium, divide the memory into
segments. For example, Pentium in the
real mode divides the 1 -MB main
memory into 16 segments (0 through
15).
˜ Each segment contains 64 kB of
memory and is addressed by 16 bits.
This figure shows a typical main
memory layout of the Pentium in real
mode.
˜ In the figure, the high 4 bits of an
address specify the segment number. As
an example, consider address 10005,, of
segment 1. The high 4 bits, 0001, of this
address define the location as in
segment 1, and the low 16 bits, 0005 ,,,
specify the particular address in
segment 1.
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˜ The 68000, on the other
hand, uses linear or non-
segmented memory. For
example, the 68000 uses 24
address pins to address 224=
16 MB of memory directly
with addresses from 000000,,
to FFFFFF,,.
˜ As mentioned before,
memories can be categorized
into two main types: read only
memory (ROM) and random-
access memory (RAM). As
shown in the next figure,
ROMs and RAMS are then
divided into a number of
subcategories, which are
discussed next.
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˜ ROMs can only be read, so is nonvolatile memory. CMOS
technology is used to fabricate ROMs. ROMs are divided into
two common types: mask ROM and erasable PROM
(EPROM), such as 2732 and EAROM (electrically alterable
ROM) [also called EEPROM or E2PROM (electrically erasable
PROM)] such as the 2864.
˜ Mask ROMs are programmed by a masking operation
performed on a chip during the manufacturing process. The
contents of mask ROMs are permanent and cannot be
changed by the user.
˜ EPROMs can be programmed, and their contents can also be
altered by using special equipment, called an ›
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for a particular
application, permanent programs are stored in ROMs.
Control memories used to microprogram the control unit
are ROMs.
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˜ EPROMs can be reprogrammed and erased. The chip must be
removed from the microcomputer system for programming.This
memory is erased by exposing the chip to ultraviolet light via a lid
or window on the chip. Typical erase times vary between 10 and 20
min. The EPROM can be programmed by inserting the chip into a
socket of the EPROM programmer and providing proper addresses
and voltage pulses at the appropriate pins of the chip.
˜ EAROMs can be programmed without removing the memory from
the ROM·s sockets. These memories are also called 
 
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 have much slower write times than
read times. Therefore, these memories are usually suited for
operations when mostly reading rather that writing will be
performed.
˜ Another type of memory, called  !
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EPROM and E2PROM technologies. Flash memory can be
reprogrammed electrically while embedded on the board. One can
change multiple bytes at a time. An example of flash memory is the
Intel 28F020 (256K x 8-bit). Flash memory is typically used in
cellular phones and digital cameras.
Assignment 1

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