Computer Organization and

Assembly Language
Muhammad Usman
Binary Fraction to Decimal

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Decimal Fraction to Binary

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 Computer Memory
• Essential part of computer
• Store program, data and other information
• Sequential Access
– File and data in specific order
– Read/write data starting from beginning
• Random Access
– Direct access
– Read/write data at any location

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• RAM technologies
– Static RAM
– Dynamic RAM
– Synchronous Dynamic RAM
– Double Data Rate Synchronous Dynamic RAM

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• ROM technologies
– Programmable ROM
– Erasable Programmable ROM
– Electrically Erasable Programmable ROM
– Flash Memory

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 Static RAM
• Requires a constant power flow
• Does not refresh
• Faster access speed
• Low power consumption
• Lesser capacity
• CPU cache, HDD buffer

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 Dynamic RAM
• Requires periodic refresh
• Capacitors gradually discharge energy
• Therefore, dynamic
• Lower cost and high capacity
• Slower access speed
• Asynchronous
• System memory, video graphic memory

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 Synchronous Dynamic RAM
• Sync with CPU clock speed
• This increase the number of processing
instructions for CPU
• Support pipelining due to sync
• 168 pins and two notches on the
connector
• System memory, video game console

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 Double Data Rate SD RAM
• Twice as fast as SD RAM
• Capable of processing two read and two
write instructions per clock cycle
• 184 pins and a single notch on the
connector
• Works on lower voltage
• Used in computer memory

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 Programmable ROM
• One time programmable
• High voltages are used
• Programmed via special device called
PROM programmer
• Bit is locked by a fuse or antifuse

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 Erasable Programmable ROM
• Can be erased by exposure to ultraviolet
light
• Can be rewritten by high voltage
• Window is designed in the chip to pass UV
light
• Window is usually covered with a label
• Many rewrite cycles

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 Electrically Erasable PROM
• Can be erased and reprogrammed
repeatedly using higher voltage
• EEPROMs do not need to be removed
from the computer to be modified
• Greater life than EPROM

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 Flash Memory
• Modern type of EEPROM
• Can be erased and rewritten faster
• High endurance (more cycles)
• NAND flash based circuit is used
• Found in USB flash drives, MP3 players,
digital cameras and solid-state drives

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Memory Hierarchy

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• Characterization of memory can be:
– Access type,
– Capacity,
– Latency,
– Bandwidth, and
– Cost

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Memory Type Access Type Capacity Latency Bandwidth

System clock
Register Random 64 bit 1-10 ns
rate

Cache Random 2 MB 20 ns 100 MB/s

Main memory Random 8 GB 50 ns 10 MB/s

Disk memory Random 500 GB 10 ms 1 MB/s

Tape memory Sequential 1 TB 10 ms to 10 s 1 MB/s

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• Internal Register
– Register is for holding the temporary results
and variables
– Accessing data from these registers is the
fastest way of accessing memory
– Accumulator(AC), Data Register(DR), Address
Register(AR), Program Counter(PC), Memory
Data Register (MDR), Index Register(IR),
Memory Buffer Register(MBR)

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• Cache
– Used by the CPU for memory which is being
accessed over and over again
– Instead of pulling it every time from the main
memory, it is put in cache for fast access
– Also a smaller memory, however, larger than
internal register
• L1 is accessed without any delay
• L2 takes more clock cycles to access than L1
• L3 takes more clock cycles to access than L2

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 Cache matters?
• Substantially faster than the system RAM
• Processor can access as quickly as possible
• On the same die as the processor
• Far more expensive to produce than RAM
• Runs at a refresh rate that's closer to the
CPU's clock speed

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• Holds data and instructions retrieved from
RAM to provide faster access to the CPU
• Used to decrease the gap between speed
of CPU and RAM
• Multi level cache is used to increase the
performance

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 Memory access, resulting in a hit or a miss

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• Main memory or RAM
– Type of the computer memory
– Volatile
– Can be increased provided the OS can handle it
• Hard disk
– Data is kept permanently
– Memory from hard disk is not directly accessed
by the CPU, hence slower
– Compared with RAM, hard disk is cheaper per bit

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• Magnetic tape
– Usually used for backing up large data
– When the system needs to access a tape, it is
first mounted to access the data
– When the data is accessed, it is then
unmounted
– The memory access time is slower in magnetic
tape
– Usually takes few minutes to access a tape
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 Secondary Memory
• External memory or auxiliary storage
• Not directly accessible by the CPU
• Non volatile
• Virtual memory concept uses secondary
memory (HDD)
• Data can be stored for longer period

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