SAND MOULDING

Sand types, Cores, Machines

Hareesha N G
Lecturer, Dept. of Aeronautical Engg,
DSCE, Bangalore-78
 Syllabus
• Sand Moulding :
– Types of base sand, requirement of base sand, Types of sand
moulds.
• Sand moulds:
– Moulding sand mixture, ingredients (base sand, binder &
additives) for different sand mixtures, Method used for sand
moulding.
• Cores:
– Definition, Need, Types.
– Method of making cores, Binders used.
– Concept of Gating & Risering, Principle involved and types.
– Fettling and cleaning of castings, Basic steps involved.
– Casting defects, causes, features and remedies.
• Moulding machines :
– Jolt type, squeeze type, Jolt & Squeeze type and Sand Slinger.
 MOLD MATERIALS
• A mold material is one, out of which the mold is made.
• A mold material should be such that the mold cavity retains its shape till
the molten metal has solidified.
• Castings can be made in:
– Permanent molds—made of ferrous metals and alloys (steel, Grey C.I.
etc.).
– Temporary refractory molds — made up of refractory sands and
resins.
• Permanent molds are normally employed for casting low melting point
materials. Permanent molds are too costly.
• For the above mentioned reasons, most of the foundry industry has its
castings produced using refractory mold materials like Refractory Sands.
• As compared to permanent molds, the refractory sand molds can cast
high melting point materials and bigger objects, whereas permanent
molds produce small castings of better quality and dimensional
accuracy.
 TYPES OF BASE SAND
• The primary and basic material used for preparing moulds is sand,
due to its high refractoriness.
• Sand usually referred to as 'base sand‘
• Nearly 90 - 95 % of the total moulding sand is occupied by sand
and the remaining is binder and additives.
• Basic types of base sand are given below
– Silica Sand
– Chromite sand
– Zircon
– Olivine sand
I. Silica Sand
• Silica sand is essentially silicon dioxide (Si02) found in nature on
the bottoms and banks of rivers, lakes and seashore.
• Silica deposits tend to have varying degree of organic and
contaminants like limestone, magnesia, soda and potash that
must be removed prior to its use, otherwise which affects castings
in numerous ways.
• Silica sand is available in plenty, less expensive and possess
favorable properties.
• Thermal expansion leads to certain casting defects; the reason for
which not being used in steel foundries.
• However, silica sand when mixed with certain additives like wood
flour, (corn flour), saw dust etc., defects can be eliminated.
• These additives burn by the heat of the molten metal thereby
creating voids that can accommodate the sand expansion.
II. Olivine sand
• Olivine sand is typically used in non-ferrous foundries.
• With its thermal expansion about half of that of silica sand, makes it
suitable for production steel castings .
• But the high cost restricts its wide use
III. Chromite sand
• This is African sand with cost being much higher compared to other
sands.
• Due to its superior thermal characteristics, it is generally used in steel
foundries for both mould and core making.
IV. Zircon or Zirconium silicate
• This sand possesses most stable thermal properties of all the above
sands.
• The choice for this type of sand arises when very high temperatures are
encountered and refractoriness becomes a consideration.
• But the major disadvantage is that, zircon has trace elements of
Uranium and Thorium which is hazardous in nature thereby restricting
its use in foundries.
 PROPERTIES OF MOLDING SANDS
• The very important characteristic of a molding sand is that it
should produce sound castings.
• For doing so, the molding sand should possess certain desirable
properties and they are:
– Flowability
– Green Strength
– Dry Strength
– Hot Strength
– Permeability or Porousness
– Refractoriness
– Adhesiveness
– Collapsibility
– Fineness
– Bench Life
– Coefficient of expansion
– Durability
1. Flowability
• Flowability is the ability of the molding sand to get compacted to a uniform density.
• Flowability assists molding sand to flow and pack all-around the pattern and take up the
required shape.
• Flowability increases as clay and water contents increase.
2. Green Strength
• It is the strength of the sand in the green or moist state
• A mold having adequate green strength will retain its shape, Will not distort, Will not
collapse, even after the pattern has been removed from the molding box.
• Green strength helps in making and handling the molds.
3. Dry Strength
• It is the strength of the molding sand in the dry condition.
• A mold may either intentionally be dried or a green sand mold may lose its moisture and
get dried while waiting for getting poured or when it comes in contact with molten metal
being poured.
• The sand (of molding cavity) thus dried must have (dry) strength to
– withstand erosive forces due to molten metal,
– withstand pressure of molten metal, and
– retain its shape.
• There should be an optimum balance between dry strength, and collapsibility of the
molding sand.
4. Hot Strength
• It is the strength of the sand (of mold cavity) above 212°F.
• In the absence of adequate hot strength, the mold may Enlarge, break, erode or, get
cracked.
5. Permeability or Porousness
• The moisture, binders (organic compounds) and additives present in mould sand core
produce steam and other gases.
• Though much of these gases escape through vents and open feeder heads, yet a good
amount of the same tends to pass off through the pore spaces of the molding sand.
• Thus to provide a path for free escape of the gases, the molding sand should be
permeable or porous.
• Sands which are coarse (Bigger in size) or have rounded grains exhibit more
permeability.
• Soft ramming and clay addition in lesser amounts also improves permeability.
• In the absence of adequate permeability, defects like surface blows, gas holes, mold
blast etc. may be experienced.
6. Refractoriness
• It is the ability of molding sand to withstand high temperatures (experienced during
pouring) without
– fusion,
– Cracking
– Buckling
– experiencing any major physical change.
• As compared to castings of low melting point alloys, refractoriness is much more
essential in the production of high melting point alloy castings (e.g. steel etc.).
7. Collapsibility
• Collapsibility is that property of the molding sand which determines the
readiness with which the molding sand or mold,
– automatically gets collapsed after the casting solidifies, and
– breaks down in knock out and cleaning operations.
• If the mold or core does not collapse, it may restrict free contraction of the
solidifying metal and cause the same to tear or crack.
8. Fineness
• Finer sand molds resist metal penetration and produce smooth casting
surfaces.
• Fineness and permeability are in conflict with each other and hence they must
be balanced for optimum results.
• Fineness and permeability, both the properties of the molding sand can be
maintained by using mold coating on highly permeable mold cavity walls.
9. Bench Life
• It is the ability of the molding sand to retain its properties during storage or
while standing (i.e., in case of any delay).
10. Coefficient of expansion
• Molding sands should possess low coefficient of expansion.
11. Durability
• The molding sand should possess the capacity to withstand repeated
cycles of heating and cooling during casting operations.
• Molding sand should be chemically immune to molten metals.
• Molding sand should be reusable.
 TYPES OF SAND MOULDS
• Moulds prepared with sand are called 'sand moulds' or 'temporary
moulds', as they are broken for removing the casting.
• The different types of sand moulds are:
– Green sand mould
– Dry sand mould and
– No-bake sand mould
1. Green sand mould
• The word 'green‘ signifies that the moulding sand is in the moist state at
the time of metal pouring.
• The main ingredients of green sand are silica sand, clay and moisture
(water).
• Additives may be added in small amounts to obtain desired properties of
mould/casting.
• Nearly 60 % of the total castings are prepared from green sand moulds.
Advantages of green sand moulds
• Preferred for simple, small and medium size castings.
• Suitable for mass production
• Least expensive
• Sand can be reused many times after reconditioning with clay and moisture
Disadvantages
• Moulds/cores prepared by this process lack in permeability, strength and
stability.
• They give rise to many defects like porosity, blow holes etc., because of low
permeability and lot of steam formation due to their moisture content.
• Moulds/cores cannot be stored for appreciable length of time.
• Not suitable for very large size castings.
• Surface finish and dimensional accuracy of castings produced are not
satisfactory.
• Difficult to cast thin and intricate shapes.
• Mould erosion which is common in green sand moulds is another disadvantage.
 2. Dry sand mould
• The word 'dry' signifies that the mould is dry or free from moisture
at the time of metal pouring.
• The absence of moisture makes dry sand moulds to overcome most
of the disadvantages of green sand moulds.
• A dry sand mould is prepared in the same manner as that of green
sand mould, i.e., by mixing silica sand, clay and water.
• The entire mould/core is dried (baked) in ovens to remove the
moisture present in them.
• Baking hardens the binder thereby increasing the strength of
moulds/cores.
• The temperature and duration of baking ranges from 200 - 450°F
and from a few minutes to hours respectively depending on the
type of metal being poured and size of the casting.
 2. Dry sand mould
Advantages
• Strength and stability of moulds is high when compared to green
sand moulds.
• Baking removes moisture and hence, defects related to moisture
are eliminated.
• Better surface finish and dimensional tolerance of castings.
Disadvantages
• Consumes more time, labor and cost due to baking process. Hence,
not suitable for mass production.
• Not suitable for large and heavy size castings, as they are difficult
to bake.
• Capital cost of bake ovens.
• Under baked or over baked moulds/cores is another disadvantage.
 3. No-Bake sand moulds
• A no-bake or self-setting sand mould is one that does not require
baking.
• The main ingredients of no-bake sand are silica sand, binder
(resin type), hardener and a catalyst or accelerator (if necessary).
• The bonding strength developed in moulds/cores is by means of a
self-setting chemical reaction between the binder and the
hardener.
• In some cases, a catalyst or an accelerator is added to speed up
the chemical reaction.
 3. No-Bake sand moulds
Advantages
• Higher strength - about 50 to 100 times that of green sand moulds.
• Patterns can be stripped within a few minutes after ramming which is not
possible in both green and dry sand moulds.
• Moulds/cores can be stored for longer periods.
• Highly simplified moulding. Hence, reduced need for skilled labour.
• Better dimensional accuracy and stability.
• Improved casting quality with increased freedom from defects.
• Surface finish is excellent. In many cases, castings can be used in as-cast
condition without machining.
Disadvantages
• Use of resins and catalysts causes lot of environmental problems both within
(i.e., during mixing and pouring) and outside (dumped sand) the foundries.
• Resins and catalysts are expensive.
• Unsafe to human operators.
• Due to high strength and hardness of moulds/cores, sand reuse is a slightly
difficult process.
 Skin-dried molds
• Sands used for making skin dried molds contain certain binders like linseed oil
which harden when heated.
• The mold is made with the molding sand in the green condition and then the
skin of the mold cavity is dried with the help of gas torches or radiant heating
lamps.
• Unlike dry mold, a skin dried mold is dried only up to a depth varying from 6 mm
to 25 mm.
• A skin-dried mold possesses strength and other characteristics in between green
and dry sand molds.
• If a skin-dried mold is not poured immediately after drying, moisture from green
backing sand may penetrate the dried skin and make the same ineffective.
 MOULDING SAND MIXTURE- INGREDIENS FOR
DIFFERENT SAND MIXTURES
• A moulding sand is a mixture of base sand, binder and additives.
• ingredients of
– green sand
– no-bake sand mixture
– dry sand mixture
 Ingredients for Green Sand Mixture
• Green sand mixture is composed of base sand, binder, moisture and additives.
• Base sand
– Silica sand is used as the base sand.
– It possesses favorable properties, inexpensive and can be reused many
number of times.
– The amount of silica sand added may vary from 85 - 92 % depending on the
requirements.
• Binder
– Bentonite (clay binder) is the widely used binder for bonding sand particles.
– It is activated in the presence of water.
– A best bond between the sand particles can be obtained with Bentonite
varying from 6 - 12 % and water 3 - 5 %.
• Additives
– Additives are added in small quantities to develop certain new properties,
or to enhance the existing properties of moulding sand.
– Sea coal, silica flour, wood flour and iron oxide are a few commonly used
additives.
 Ingredients for No-bake sand mixture
• Ingredients of 'alkyd binder system' which is one of the most widely used binder system in
Indian foundries is discussed below.
• Base sand
– Silica sand is used as the base sand.
• Binder
– The alkyd binder system consists of three parts: Part A (binder), Part B (hardener) and
Part C (catalyst).
• Part A (Binder):
– The binder is an alkyd resin which is obtained by reacting linseed oil with a polybasic
acid like isopthalic and solvents like turpentine, kerosene or mineral spirit to
improve flowability.
– Its addition ranges from 2 - 5 % based on weight of sand.
• Part B (Hardener):
– The hardener is a reacted product between cobalt/lead salts and napthanic acid.
– Its addition ranges from 5 - 10 % based on weight of binder.
• Part C (Catalyst):
– Methylene-diphenyl-Di-isocyanate commonly known as MDI is used as catalyst to
speed up the chemical reaction.
– Its addition ranges from 20- 25 % based on weight of binder.
 Ingredients for Dry Sand Mixture
• Ingredients for dry sand mixture is similar to that of green sand.
 Loam sand ingredients
• Loam sand contains much more clay as compared to ordinary molding sand.
The clay content is of the order of 50% or so.
• The ingredients of loam sand may be fine sands, finely ground refractories,
clays, graphite and fibrous reinforcement.
• A typical loam sand mixture contains silica sand 20 volumes, clay 5 vols, and
moisture 20%.
• Molds for casting large bells etc., are made up of brick framework and lined
with loam sand and dried.
• Sweep or skeleton patterns may be used for loam molding.
 MOLDING METHODS
• Various molding methods are:
– Bench molding
– Floor molding
– Pit molding
– Machine molding
a) Bench molding
• Molding is carried out on a bench of convenient height.
• Small and light molds are prepared on benches.
• The molder makes the mold while standing.
• Both green and dry sand molds can be made by bench molding,
• Molds, both for ferrous and (especially) non-ferrous castings are made on bench molds.
• Both cope and drag are rammed on the bench.
b) Floor molding
• Molding work is carried out on foundry floor when mold size is large and molding cannot
be carried out on a bench.
• Medium and large-sized castings are made by floor molding.
• The mold has its drag portion in the floor and cope portion may be rammed in a flask and
inverted on the drag.
• Both green and dry sand moulds can be made by floor molding
c) Pit molding
• Very big castings which cannot be made in flasks are molded in pits dug on the
floor.
• Very large jobs can be handled and cast easily through pit molding.
• The mold has its drag part in the pit and a separate cope is rammed and used
above the (pit) drag.
• The depth of the drag in pit molding is much more than that in floor molding.
• In pit molding, the molder may enter the drag and prepare it.
• A pit is of square or rectangular shape.
• The sides of the (pit) drag are lined with brick and the bottom is covered with
molding sand .
• The cope (a separate flask) is rammed over the pit (drag) with pattern in
position.
• Gates, runner, pouring basin, sprue etc. are made in the cope.
• The mold is dried by means of a stove(heater) placed in the pit.
• Cope and drag are then assembled. A crane may be used for lifting and
positioning the cope over drag.
• Cope can be clamped in position.
• Mold is ready for being poured.
d) Machine molding
• In bench, floor and pit molding, the different molding operations are carried out
manually by the hands of the molder, whereas in machine molding, various
molding operations like sand ramming, rolling the mold over, withdrawing the
pattern etc. are done by machines.
• Machines perform these operations much faster, more efficiently and in a much
better way.
• Molding machines produce identical and consistent castings.
• Molding machines produce castings of better quality and at lower costs.
• Molding machines are preferred for mass production of the castings whereas
hand molding (bench, pit and floor) is used for limited production.
• Machine molding is not a fully automatic process; many operations can though
be performed by machines, yet some others have to be carried out by hands.
• A few different types of molding machines are listed below:
– Jolt machine
– Squeeze machine
– Jolt-squeeze machine
– Sand Slinger
 CORE
Introduction
• Core is an obstruction-which when positioned in the mold, naturally does not
permit the molten metal to fill up the space occupied by the core. In this way a
core produces hollow castings.
• Cores are required to create the recesses, undercuts and interior cavities that are
often a part of castings.
• A core may be defined as a sand shape or form which makes the contour of a
casting for which no provision has been made in the pattern for molding.
• core as a sand shape is generally produced separate from the sand mold and is
then baked (hardened) to facilitate handling and setting into the mold.
• Cores may be made up of sand, metal, plaster or ceramics.
Different Functions (Purposes) of Cores
• For hollow castings, cores provide the means of forming the main internal
cavities.
• Cores may provide external undercut features
• Cores may be employed to improve the mold surface
• Cores may be inserted to achieve deep recesses in the castings.
• Cores may be used to strengthen the molds
• Cores may be used to form the gating system of large size molds.

Essential Characteristics of (dry sand) Cores

• A Core must possess
– Sufficient strength to support itself and to get handled without breaking.
– High permeability to let the mold gases escape through the mold walls.
– Smooth surface to ensure a smooth casting.
– High refractoriness to withstand the action of hot molten metal (metal
penetration etc.).
– High collapsibility in order to assist the free contraction of the
– solidifying metal.
– Those ingredients which do not generate mold gases.
 TYPES OF CORES
Cores may be classified according to
A. The state or condition of core D. The shape and position of the core
1. Green sand core 1. Horizontal core
2. Dry sand core 2. Vertical core
3. Hanging or cover core
3. No bake sand core
4. Balanced core
B. The nature of core materials employed 5. Drop core or stop off core
1. Oil bonded cores 6. Ram up core
2. Resin bonded cores 7. Kiss core.
3. Shell cores
4. Sodium silicate cores
C. The type of core hardening process employed
1. C02 process
2. The hot box process
3. The cold set process
4. Fluid or castable sand process
5. Furan-No-Bake system
6. Oil-No-Bake process
A. The state or condition of core
1. Green sand cores
• Green sand cores are formed by the pattern itself.
• A green sand core is a part of the mold.
• A green sand core is made out of the same sand from which the rest of the mold has
been made i.e., the molding sand.
2. Dry sand cores
• Dry sand cores (unlike green sand cores )are not produced as a part of the mold.
• Dry sand cores are made separately and independent of the mold.
• A dry sand core is made up of core sand which differs very much from the sand out of
which the mold is constructed.
• A dry sand core is made in a core box and it is baked after ramming.
• A dry sand core is positioned in the mold on core-seats formed by core-prints on the
patterns.
• A dry sand core is inserted in the mold before closing the same.
3. No-bake sand cores
• The sand used for preparing no-bake core is similar to that used for making no-bake sand
moulds.
• Synthetic resins like phenol or urea formaldehyde are used as binder for bonding silica sand.
• Certain chemicals are used as hardeners and catalysts to bring about a chemical reaction with
the binder due to which bonding of sand grains takes place.
B. The nature of core materials employed
1. Oil bonded cores
• Conventional sand cores are produced by mixing silica sand with a small
percentage of linseed oil.
2. Resin-bonded cores
• Phenol resin bonded sand is rammed in a core box.
• The core is removed from the core box and baked in a core oven at 375 to
450°F to harden the core.
3. Sodium Silicate cores
• These cores use a core material consisting of clean, dry sand mixed with a
solution of sodium silicate
C. The type of core hardening process employed
1. hot box process
• It uses heated core boxes for the production of cores.
• The core box is made up of cast iron, steel or aluminium and possesses vents and
ejectors for removing core gases and stripping core from the core box
respectively.
• Core box is heated from 350 to 500°F.
• Heated core boxes are employed for making shell cores from dry resin bonded
mixtures.
2. The cold set process
• While mixing the core-sand, an accelerator is added to the binder.
• Curing begins immediately with the addition of accelerator and continues until
the core is strong to be removed from the core box.
• Cold set process is employed for making large cores.
3. Castable sand process
• A setting or hardening agent such as dicalcium silicate is added to sodium
silicate at the time of core sand mixing.
• The sand mixture possesses high flowability and after being poured in the core
box, it chemically hardens after a short interval of time.
D. The shape and position of the core
1. Horizontal core
• Fig. shows horizontal core.
• A horizontal core is positioned horizontally in the mold.
• A horizontal core may have any shape, circular or of
some other section depending upon the shape of the
cavity required in the casting.
• A horizontal core is supported in core seats at both ends.
• Uniform sectioned horizontal cores are generally placed at the parting line.
• A horizontal core is very commonly used in foundries.

2. Vertical core
• Fig. shows a vertical core.
• On the cope side, a vertical core needs more taper so as
not to tear the sand in the cope while assembling cope
and drag.
• A vertical core is named so because it is positioned in the
mold cavity with its axis vertical.
• The two ends of a vertical core are supported in core seats in cope and drag respectively.
• A big portion of the vertical core usually remains in the drag
• A vertical core is very frequently used in foundries.
3. Hanging or cover core
• Fig. shows a hanging (cover) core
• It is known as hanging core because it
hangs; it is also called cover core if it
covers the mold and rests on a seat
made in the drag.
• A simple hanging core is one which is
not supported on any seat rather it
hangs from the cope with the help of
wires, etc.
• A hanging core is supported from above and it hangs vertically in the mold
cavity.
• A hanging core has no support from bottom.
• A hanging core is provided with a hole through which molten metal reaches
the mold cavity.
• Hanging cores can be made up of either green or dry sand.
4. Balanced core
• Fig. shows a balanced core.
• A balanced core is one which is supported and balanced from its one end only.
• A balanced core requires a long core seat so that the core does not sag or fall
into the mold.
• A balanced core is used when a casting does not want a through cavity.
5. Drop or stop off core
• Fig. shows a Drop or stop off core.
• A stop off core is employed to make a cavity (in the casting) which cannot
be made with other types of cores.
• A stop off core is used when a hole, recess or cavity, required in a casting
is not in line with the parting surface, rather it is above or below the
parting line of the casting.
• Depending upon its shape and use, a stop off core may also be known as
tail core, saddle core, chair core, etc.
6. Ram-up core
• A ram-up core is shown in Fig.
• A ram-up core is one which is placed in the sand along with pattern before
ramming the mold.
• A ram-up core cannot be placed in the mold after the mold has been
rammed.
• A ram-up core is used to make internal or external (surface) details of a
casting.
7. Kiss core
• Kiss core is shown in Fig.
• A kiss core does not require core seats for getting supported.
• A kiss core is held in position between drag and cope due to the pressure
exerted by cope on the drag.
• A number of kiss cores can be simultaneously positioned in order to
obtain a number of holes in a casting.
 Method of making the cores
Core Making (Preparation) Procedure
Steps involved:
1. Core Sand Preparation
2. Making the Cores
3. Baking the Cores.
4. Finishing of Cores.
5. Setting the Cores.
1. Core Sand Preparation
• The core sand of desired type (dry sand, no-bake etc.,) and composition along
with additives is mixed manually or using Muller of suitable type.
2. Making The Cores
• Cores are prepared manually or using machines depending on the needs.
• Machines like jolt machine, sand slinger, core blower etc., are used for large
scale continuous production, while small sized cores for limited production are
manually made in hand filled core boxes.
• A core box is similar to a pattern that gives a suitable shape to the core.
• Figure shows a core box used to produce rectangular shaped cores with
procedure.
Steps Involved in making the core
• Core box is usually placed on work-bench; it is filled with already mixed and
prepared core sand, is rammed by hand and the extra sand is removed from the
core box.
• Weak cores may be reinforced with steel wires to strengthen them.
• Core box is inverted over the core plate and this transfers the core from the core
box to core plate which (i.e., core) is then baked in the oven (over the core plate
itself).
• Larger cores can also be made manually but on the floor (and not on bench). It
needs more than one man to work and the cranes may also be used, if
necessary
3. Core Baking
• Cores are baked in ovens in order to drive away the moisture in them and also
to harden the binder thereby imparting strength to the core.
• The temperature and duration for baking may vary from 200 - 450°F and from a
few minutes to hours respectively depending on the size of the core and type of
binder used.
4. Core finishing
• The baked cores are finished by rubbing or filing with special tools to remove
any fins, bumps, lose sand or other sand projections from its surface.
• The cores are also checked for dimensions and cleanliness.
• Finally, if cores are made in parts, they are assembled by using suitable pastes,
pressed and dried in air before placing them in the mould cavity.
 Core binders
• A core binder,
– holds sand grains together
– gives strength to cores
– makes cores to resist erosion and breaking,
– imparts adequate collapsibility to cores.
• core binders are of the following types
A. Organic binders
B. Inorganic binders
C. Other binders.
A. Organic Binders
1. Core oil.
They may be
• Vegetable (i.e., linseed oil)
• Marine animal (i.e., whale oil), and
• mineral oil (used for diluting vegetable and marine animal oils)
2. Cereal binders
• They are
– Gelatinized starch. It is made by wet milling and contains starch and gluten.
– Gelatinized corn flour.
• Cereal binders contribute to green strength.
3. Water soluble binders
• They are
– Dextrin, made from starch.
– Molasses, etc.
4. Wood product binders
• They are
– Natural resins (i.e., rosin, thermoplastic).
– Sulfite binders. They contain Lignin, are water soluble compounds of wood
sugars produced in the paper pulp process i.e., as a by-product of paper
making.
B. Inorganic Binders
• They are
– Fire clay
– Bentonite
– Silica flour
– Iron oxide, etc.
• These binders develop green strength, baked strength, hot strength and impart
smooth surface finish.
• They are finely pulverized materials.
• They greatly increase the amount of oil necessary in oil sand mixes.
Note: Inorganic binders have been discussed under 1st chapter
C. Other Binders
• They are
– Portland cement. It hardens at room temperature.
– Cements (i.e., rubber cements). They harden at room temperature
– Sodium silicate. The core hardens as carbon-di-oxide gas is passed through it.
 PRINCIPLES OF GATING SYSTEM
• The term gating system refers to all
passageways through which the molten metal
passes to enter the mold cavity.
• The gating system is composed of
– Pouring cups and basins
– Sprue
– Runner
– Gates
– Risers.
• Fig. shows the various components of the
gating system.
• Since the way in which liquid metal enters the mold has a decided influence upon
the quality and soundness of a casting, the different passages for the molten
metal are carefully designed and produced.
• A gating system should avoid sudden or right angle changes in direction.
• Sudden change in direction causes mold erosion, turbulence and gas pick-up.
• If possible the gating system should form a part of the pattern
REQUIREMENTS, PURPOSES OR FUNCTIONS OF THE GATING
SYSTEM
• A Gating system should,
– fill the mold cavity completely before freezing;
– introduce the liquid metal into the mold cavity with low velocity
and little turbulence, so that mold erosion, metal oxidation and
gas pickup is prevented;
– incorporate traps for the separation of non metallic inclusions
which are either introduced with the molten metal or are
dislodged in the gating system;
– regulate the rate at which liquid metal enters into the mold;
– be practicable and economical to make and;
– consume least metal. In other words, the metal solidified in
sprue, runner, gates and risers should be minimum because
gates, risers etc., are removed from the final casting; the gating
system should provide for the maximum yield.
 GATES
Characteristics
• A gate is a channel which connects runner with the mold cavity and
through which molten metal flows to fill the mold cavity.
• A gate should feed liquid metal to the casting at a rate consistent with the
rate of solidification.
• The size of the gate depends upon the rate of solidification.
• A small gate is used for a casting which solidifies slowly and vice-versa.
• More than one gates may be used to feed a fast freezing casting.
• A gate should not have sharp edges as they (i.e., edges) may break during
pouring and (sand pieces) thus be carried with the molten metal into the
mold cavity..
• Moreover, sharp edges may cause localized delay in freezing, thus
resulting in the formation of voids and inclusions in the cast objects.
• A gate may be built as a part of the pattern or it may be cut in the mold
with the help of a gate cutter.
Types of Gates
• The major types of gates are,
1. Top Gate
2. Bottom gate
3. Parting line side gate
1. Top gate
• Fig. shows a few types of top gates.
• A top gate is sometimes also called as Drop gate because the molten
metal just drops on the sand in the bottom of the mold
• In top gate, a stream of liquid metal impinges against the bottom of mold
cavity until a pool is formed and this is kept in a state of agitation until the
mold is filled.
Advantages of Top Gating
• Simplicity for moulding.
• Low consumption of additional metal.
• Generation of favourable temperature gradients to enable directional
solidification from the casting towards the gate which serves as riser
too.
Disadvantages of Top Gating
• The dropping liquid metal stream erodes the mold surface.
• Dropping metal does cutting action, lifts portions of the surface and
causes scab (Skin).
• Splashing of molten metal associated with the liquid metal stream
increase chances of oxidation.
• There is lot of turbulence and pick-up of air and other gases.
2. Bottom Gate
• Fig. shows a few types of bottom gates.
• A bottom gate is made in the drag portion of the mold.
• In a bottom gate, liquid metal fills rapidly the bottom portion of the
mold cavity and rises steadily and gently up the mold walls.
• Types of bottom gate are
– Simple bottom gate
– A horn gate

Simple bottom gate

A horn gate
Advantages of Bottom Gating
• There is no scouring(Rubbing) and splashing in the bottom gate.
• As compared to top gate, a bottom gate involves little turbulence and metal
erosion.
• Bottom gate produces good casting surfaces.
Disadvantages of Bottom Gating
• In bottom gates, liquid metal enters the mold cavity at the bottom. If freezing
takes place at the bottom, it could choke off the metal flow before the mold is
full.
• A bottom gate creates an unfavorable temperature gradient and makes it difficult
to achieve directional solidification especially when the bottom gate has a riser
at the top of the casting.
• A bottom gate involves greater complexity of molding.
• The liquid metal cools as it rises the mold walls and results in cold metal and cold
mold near the (top) riser and hot metal and hot mold near the gate.