• Designed to make writing clear

and easy to understand.

• Poor punctuation may cause the
reader to misunderstand the
context.
• Distracted by the errors and not
focus on the context.
 COMMA ( , )
Use to separate the parts of a sentence so that
the meaning is clear.
Use a comma to separate the parts of the sentence
• The statute provides that the contract must be witnessed, but it does not require the contract to be in writing.

Set off introductory phrases or clauses with a comma

• After the prosecutor concluded his opening statement, the court declared a recess.

Use a comma after each item in a series of three or more items, and place a
comma before and or or at the end of the series.
• The defendant had no identification, money, or other possessions.

Use a comma to avoid a misreading of the subject.

• Instead of rule A, rule B applies in this situation.
Separate coordinate adjectives with comma. Coordinate adjectives independently
modify the same noun.
• The correct, concise interpretation is that…
• The concise, correct interpretation is that…

Set off transitional or interpretive words or phrases with a comma.

• The plaintiffs, however, have failed to comply.

Set off nonrestrictive clauses with a comma.

• The court of appeals denied the appeal, finding that the evidence was properly admitted.

Use of a comma to set off appositives.

• The client, Ms. Smith, was elected to the position.
Set off contrasting phrases with a comma or commas
• Mr. Jones, not Ms. Smith, was the guilty party.

Use commas when required to set off quotations. Place the comma between the
quotation and attribution
• He said, “I did not do it.”

Place a comma inside the closing quotation mark, not outside the quotation mark
• “Witnessing is not required,” he said.

Place a comma before and after descriptive titles, such as M.D., Ph.D
• The doctor in this case is Mary Place, M.D., who attended medical school at Yale Medical School.

CAVEAT: Do not use a comma before Jr. II, and so on, after a personal name
Do not use a comma before parentheses
• All employees (executives and assistants) shall arrive at work at 8:00 a.m.

General Rule: Do not use a comma after short prepositional phrases

• In every situation, you should read the contract.
CAN BE: In every situation you should read the contract.

Place a comma between the day and year if the full date is written
• The hearing will be held on November 16,2005.

When only the month and year are used, no comma is used.
• There will be no hearings during November 2005.

Use a comma when a word or group of words is omitted but the meaning of the
sentence is clear
• Mary prepared the opening and analysis; Jane, the closing.
 Use of Semicolon (;)
Used Primarily in two situations:
❏ To separate major elements of complex sentences

❏ To separate items in a series if the items are long or if one of the

items has internal commas
 To separate major elements of complex
sentences
Note the following rules:

1. Use a semicolon to separate main or independent clauses in sentence that are not
joined by a coordinating conjunction.

Independent clauses have a subject and a verb and each could be a separate sentence.

Conjunctions are words that connect words and phrases; a coordinating conjunction such as
and, but and or, is a conjunction that connects like elements.

Autumn had come to our mountain home; the trees were almost bare.
To separate major elements of complex sentences
2. Use a semicolon when independent clauses are joined by a conjunctive adverb such
as therefore, however, furthermore, consequently, likewise, and nevertheless.

The rule requires that the will must be witnessed in writing; however, there
are three exceptions.
To separate major elements of complex sentences
3. At the end of a sentence, use a semicolon to separate an appositive introduced by such
terms as that is, for example, and namely.

The plaintiff has not shown that the defendant violated all the statutory
requirements; for example, the requirements that a firearm be used, that the firearm
be in plain sight, and that the firearm be loaded.
To separate items in a series if the items are long
or if one of the items has internal commas
4. Series of items is long:

The plaintiffs must prove the following to establish that the will was validly
witnessed:

a. there were two witnesses to the will;

b. the witnesses were present in the room when the will was signed; and
c. the witnesses were not related to the testator or were not bequeathed
anything in the will.
To separate items in a series if the items are long
or if one of the items has internal commas
5. List of items with internal commas:

The old gentleman’s heirs were Margaret Whitlock, his half-sister; James Bagley,
the butler; William Frame, companion to his late cousin,Robert Bone; and his
favorite charity, the Salvation Army.
 Apostrophe (‘)
An apostrophe indicates possession or forms a
contraction.
 Basic rules
Using apostrophe to indicate possession
1. Make singular nouns
possessive
by adding an apostrophe and S
Example:
The respondent’s argument
Mr. Adaza’s pleading
 2. Make plural nouns possessive
by adding an apostrophe after the
s
Example:
the players’ uniforms
the workers’ organization
 3. Use an apostrophe and an s after the
last word of a compound word or word
group
Example:
attorney general’s office
Fred and Tom’s car ( they both own the same car)
Fred’s and Tom’s car (own separate cars)
4. The possessives of personal pronouns
do not require an apostrophe
Example:
yours, his, hers, ours, its (possessive of it)
whose (possessive of who)
 contractions

A word made by shortening and combining two words. An

apostrophe is also used to form contractions. They are generally
not used in formal writing.
 How to make a
contraction
Use an apostrophe in place of the omitted letter or letters.
Example:
they’re , can’t, don’t, who’s, it’s
QUOTATION
MARKS
• Are punctuation
marks used in pairs
in various writing
system to set off
direct speech or
phrase.
 GUIDELINES
WHEN QUOTING
 LONG QUOTATIONS ARE NOT SET OFF
BY QUOTATION MARKS
• According to the APA manual, quotations that are 40 words or more are considered block
quotations and are formatted differently than regular quotations.
• The following is a list of the unique formatting that is needed for block quotations:
• Block quotations start on their own line.
• The entire block quotation is indented 0.5 inches, the same as the indentation for a new
paragraph, and is double spaced.
• Block quotations are not surrounded by any quotation marks.
• The punctuation at the end of the block quotation goes before the citation.
• The ending citation is included on the last line of the block quotation.
• The text after the block quotation begins on its own line, with no indentation. You should not
end a paragraph with a block quotation because any quotation you use as evidence in your
writing should be followed by analysis in your own words as part of the same paragraph.
BLOCK QUOTATION
PLACE PERIODS AND COMMAS INSIDE THE
QUOTATION MARKS

He was described as “a dangerous individual.”

USE QUOTATION MARK TO INDICATE THAT A
WORD IS USED IN SPECIAL TERM

The attorney acted as “HIRED GUN” in the case.

WHEN QUOTING A QUOTE WITHIN A QUOTE,
USE SINGLE QUOTATION MARKS

The court held that “the term ‘oppressive conduct’ requires that the shareholder
engage in some wrongful conduct.”
QUOTATION MARKS MAY ALSO BE USED TO
INDICATE THAT A TERM IS INFORMAL OR
QUESTIONABLE

The only “Injury” sustained in this lawsuit was the cost of the litigation.
ELLIPSES
Three spaced dots
• When the omission occurs inside a quotation, use three ellipsis dots

When I went on my trip, I first went to the tower... And saw the mountains on the horizon.

Retain any punctuation that appears before or after the omitted material if it is grammatically
necessary for the restructured sentence/

When we went on the tour of the villa… we also visited the famous gardens.
When the end of a quotated sentence is omitted, add a period for the punctuation to end the
sentence. Follow the last word with a space, the three ellipsis dots, a space and a period.

The statute requires that “the majority shareholder must refrain from engaging in oppressive conduct….”

When the omission is at the beginning of a quote, do not use an ellipsis; merely indicate where the
quoted material begins with the opening quotation marks. In Legal writing a bracketed first letter
signals that you have changed the case of the initial letter of the quotation

Correct: In this case, the court stated that “… the act does not require specific intent.”
The court noted that “ [i]gnorance of the law is no excuse.”

If the quote is a phrase or clause, no ellipsis is required.

The state must establish “specific intent.”

INCORRECT: The state must establish “ … specific intent.”