Chapter 2

Determinant
 Objective:
To introduce the notion of determinant,
and some of its properties as well as
applications.
 Several applications of determinant

 Test for singularity of a matrix instead of by definiti

on.
 Find the area of a parallelogram generated by two vec
tors.
 Find the volume of a parallelopipe spanned by three v
ectors.
 Solve Ax=b by Cramer’s rule.
 Introduction to Determinant
(to determine the singularity of a matrix)

11
Consider A  ( a )  F .

If we define det(A)=a,۹ det A 0.

then A is nonsingular.
 Case2 2×2 Matrices

 a11 a12  2 2
 Let A    F
a21 a22 
 Suppose a11  0 ,

E12 ( a21 ) E2 (a11 ) a11 a12 

then A 0 a11a22  a12 a21 


If we define det( A)  a11a12  a12a21.

then A is nonsingular  det( A)  0.
 Case2 2×2 Matrices (cont.)

 Suppose a11  0 but a12  0 ,

E12 a21 a22 

then A 0 and det( A)  a12a21.
 a12 

Thus A is nonsingular  det( A)  0.

 Suppose a  a  0  A is singular & det(A)=0.
11 21

 To summarize, A is nonsingular  det( A)  0

 Case3 3×3 Matrices

 a11 a12 a13 

 Let A  a21 a22 a23   F 33
 

 a31 a32 a33 


-Suppose a11  0,
 a11 a12 a13 
E13 (  aa1131 ) E12 (  aa1121 )  0 a11 a 22  a12 a 21 a11 a 23  a 21a13 
A  a11 a11 
 0 a13 a32  a31a12 a11 a33  a31a13 
 a11 a11 
 Case3 3×3 Matrices (cont.)

 From 2x2 case,

 a11a22a11a12a21 a11a23  a21a13

I  det  a13a32 a31a12 0
a11
A a11a33  a31a13
 a11 a11 
define
� a11a22 a33  a11a32 a23  a12 a21a33
+ a12 a31a23 + a13a21a32  a13a31a22  det( A) �0

Then A is nonsingular  det( A)  0.

 Easily Shown for Cases

(i )a11  0, a21  0
(ii )a11  a21  0, a31  0
(iii )a11  a21  a31  0

that A I  det( A)  0.
 Recall

 For A  F 22 ,

det A  a11a22  a12a21

2
 a11 det( M 11 )  a12 det( M 12 )   ( 1)1+ j a1 j det( M 1 j )
j 1

where M 11  ( a22 ) & M 12  (a21 )

 Recall (cont.)

 For A  F 33,

det A  a11 (a22a33  a32a23 )  a12 (a21a33  a31a23 )

+ a13 (a21a32  a31a22 )
 a11 det( M 11 )  a12 det( M 12 ) + a13 det( M 13 )
n
  ( 1)1+ j a1 j det( M 1 j )
j 1

a22 a23  a21 a23  a21 a22 

where M 11   , M 12   , M 13  

a32 a33  a31 a33  a31 a32 
 Generalization

, n > 3 , and let

n n
Definition: Let A  F

 M ij  F ( n 1)( n 1) the matrix obtained from A by

deleting the row & column containing aij .
 The det( M ij ) is called the minor of aij
 The cofactorAij ofaij is denoted as
Aij  ( 1)i + j det( M ij )
 n n
Definition: The determinant of A  F is defined as

a11 , if n=1
det A  n

a
j 1
1j A1 j
, if n>1

n n
Note: det is a function from F to F .
Theroem2.1.1:Let A  F nn , n  2 ,
n n
det( A)  �aik Aik  �akj Akj
k 1 k 1

for i  1, 2,...n. and j  1, 2,...n.

Hint: By induction or sign-type definition.

Theroem2.1.2: Let A  F
n n
,and det( AT
)  det( A)
Pf: By induction,
n=1,ok!
Suppose the theorem is true for n=k.
If n=k+1, k +1 k +1
det( A)   ( 1) j +1 a1 j det( M 1 j )   ( 1) j +1 a1 j det( M 1Tj )
j 1 j 1

 det( AT ) By induction

The result then follows.

 n n
Theroem2.1.3: Let A  F n
be a triangular matrix.
Then det( A)   aii .
i 1
Hint:expansion for lst row or column and induction on n
.

Theroem2.1.4: (i)If A has a row or column det(consisting

A)  0.
entirely of zeros, then
(ii)If A has two
det( A) identical
 0. rows or columns,
then
§2-2 Properties of Determinants

Note that det( A + B )  det A + det B

For example, A  1 0, B  0 0

 0 0 0 1 
   

Question: Is
det( AB )  det( A) det( B ) ?
Lemma2.2.1:
Let A  F nn , then
n

a
k 1
ik Ajk  ai1 Aj1 +  + ain Ajn

det( A) , if i  j

0 , if i  j
 Proof of Lemma2.2.1

Pf: Case for i=j follows directly from the definition

of determinant.
For i  j ,

define A to be the matrix obtained
from A by replacing the jth row of A by ith row

of A. (Then A has two identical rows)
 0  det( A )  ai1 Aj1 +  + ain Ajn
expansion along jth row

 ai1 Aj1 +  + ain Ajn

Proof of Lemma2.2.1(cont.)

�a11 a12 K a1n �

� �
�M M M�
�ai1 ai 2 K ain �
 � �
A  �M M M�
�ai1 ai 2 K ain �jth row
� �
�M M M�
�an1 an 2 K ann �
� �
Note that
 det( Ei ( ))    det( I )  by Th. 2.1.3

 det( Eij ( ))  1  by Th. 2.1.3

 det( Eij )  1  先對非交換列展開

數學歸納法
 n
 det( Ei ( ) A)  a
j 1
ij Aij   det( A)

 det( Ei ( )) det( A)

 det( Eij ( ) A)   (a

k 1
ik +a jk ) A jk

 a ik A jk +  a jk Ajk
0
Lemma 2.2.1
 det( A)  det( Eij ( )) det( A)
   
 a ( j , :)

  ith row
det( Eij A)  det   
 
 a ( i , 
:)  jth row

   

  
  a (i , :)
E ji ( 1) Eij (1) E ji ( 1)
  ith row
 det      det( A)  det( Eij ) det( A)
 
 a ( j , :) jth row

  

Thus, we have

det( EA)  det( E ) det( A)

If E is an elementary matrix
In fact, det(AE)=det(A)det(E)

Question: det( AB )  det( A) det( B ) ?

Theorem2.2.2: A  F nn is singular  det( A)  0.
Pf:Transform A to its row echelor from as
U  Ek  E1 A
k
� det(U )  (�det( Ei )) det( A)
i 1 0
If A is singular
 U contains a zero row.
 det(U )  0  det( A)  0
If A is nonsingular
 all the diagonal elements of U is 1.
 det(U )  1
 det( A)  0
The result then follows.
 n n
Theorem2.2.3:Let A, B  F .Then

det( AB )  det( A) det( B )

Pf: If B is singular
 AB is singular
Th.2.2.2
 det( AB )  0  det( A) det( B )
If B is nonsingular
 B  Ek  E1 , where Ei are elementary matrices.
 det( AB )  det( AEk  E1 )

 det( A) det( Ei )

 det( A) det( Ei )

 det( A) det( B )
 §2-3 Cramer’s Rule

 Objective:
1
Use determinant to compute A and
solve Ax=b.
 The Adjoint of a Matrix

n n
Def: Let A  F .The adjoint of A is defined to be
�A11 A21 L An1 �
�A A �
An 2 �
adj ( A)  � 12 22

�M O M�
� �
�A1n A2 n L Ann �
where Aij are cofactor of aij .
By Lemma2.2.1, we have
n
det( A) if i  j
 aik Ajk 
k 1
0 if i  j

� A(adj ( A))  det( A) �

I

If A is nonsingular, det(A) is a nonzero scalar

� A( det(1 A) adj ( A))  I

1
�A  1
det( A ) adj ( A)
 Example 1 (P.116)

�a22 a12 �
For a 2×2 matrix : adj ( A)  �
�a21 a11 �
�

If A is nonsingular ޹ det( A) 0 , then

1 �a a 12 �
A  det(1 A) � 22 �
a21
� a11 �
 Example 2 (P.116)

2 1 2
Q: Let A   3 2 2 , compute adj A and A-1.

1 2 3
Sol: �2 1 2 �
adj ( A)  �
�7 4 2��
�
�4 3 1 � �
�2 1 2 �
A1  det(1 A) adj ( A)  15 �
�7 4 2 �
�
�4 3 1 �
� �
Theorem2.3.1:(Cramer’s Rule) v
n n
Let A  F be nonsingular and b ޹ F . Denote Ai the
n
v
matrix obtained by replacing the ith column of A by b.Then
v v
the unique sol. of Ax  b is
det( Ai )
xi  det( A ) , for i  1,  , n
v 1
v v
Pf: Qx A b  1
det( A ) adj ( A) �
b
n
� xi  1
det( A ) �b
j 1
j < adjA >ij

n
det( Ai )
 1
det( A ) �b j A ji  det( A)
j 1
 Example 3 (P.117)

Q: Use Cramer’s rule to Solve

x1 + 2 x2 + x3  5
2 x1 + 2 x2 + x3  6
x1 + 2 x2 + 3 x3  9
 Example 3 (cont.)

Sol:
det( A)  4
5 2 1
 
det( A1 )  det 6 2 1  4
 
9 2 3
det( A2 )  4
det( A3 )  8
 x1  det( A1 )
det( A )  1, x2  det( A2 )
det( A )  1, x3  det( A3 )
det( A ) 2
   
 Let a , b , c  3 .Then volume of the parallelopipe
  
spanned by a , b and c is
   
V  a  (b  c )  det(a b c )
 
 Let a , b   2
.Then the area of the parallelogram
 
spanned by a and b is

A  det( ab )
 Application 1: Coded Message (P.118)

For example, the message

Send Money
might be coded as
5, 8, 10, 21, 7, 2, 10, 8, 3

here the S is represented by a “5”, the E is represented

by a “8”, and so on.
 Application 1: Coded Message (cont.)

If A is a matrix whose entries are all integers and

whose determinants is ± 1, then, since A1  �adj A ,
the entries of A-1 will be integers.

Let
1 2 1�
� �5 21 10 �
� � � �
A�2 5 3 � and B= �8 7 8 �
�2 3 2 � �10 2 3 �
� � � �
 Application 1: Coded Message (cont.)

We can decode it by multiplying by A-1

�1 1 1 � �31 37 29 � �5 21 10 �
� �
� �� �
� 2 0 1 �
�80 83 69 
�� 8 7 8 �
� 4 1 1 �
�54 67 50 �� 10 2 3 �
� �
� �� �
We can construct A
-1by applying a sequence of row operations on identity matrix.
A AB(encoding Message)
Note:

det( A)  �det( I )  �1