Zoology – the study of animals.

 There are 1.5 million+

animals (estimates as
high as 3 million
undescribed).
 Classified into 35
current Phylums
 Phylum Arthropoda =
1.2 million+ named
species.
 Mammals represent
only about 5, 000
named species!
 Zoology Disciplines
 Comparative Anatomy – the study of structures
and functions of various animal groups.
 Taxonomy – the science of finding, describing, and
classifying animals.
 Entomology – the study of insects.
 Ichthyology – the study of fish
 Herpetology – the study of reptiles and
amphibians.
 Ethology – the study of animal behavior.
 Malacology – the study of molluscs.
 Myrmecology – the study of ants.
 Helminthology – the study of worms
What is an Animal?

Petunia is a plant
and
Wolf spider is an
animal.
 What is an Animal?

 Coral
sessile (“rooted”?)
stem, branches,
greenish.
Resembles plant;
but this IS an
animal! Why?
 What IS an Animal?
 Definition of "Animal"
Multicellular (so are plants, fungi)
Eukaryotic (so are plants, fungi)
Diploid (usually) (so are plants, fungi)
Meiosis produces gametes called
sperm and egg
Sperm, egg are the only haploid cells
Heterotrophic by ingestion
Cells lack cell walls.
What IS an Animal?

Basic structure (not definition) = Tube-in-tube

 Body wall = outer tube
 gut (GI tract) = inside tube
mouth
anus
Embryological Development
in Animals
 Every animal begins as ZYGOTE

 How do animals develop tube-in-tube

body form?

 Important in understanding
relationships, classification of Phyla.
Three fundamental
processes:
1. Morphogenesis
(morph- = shape, + genesis = origin)
Origin of shape, form
2. Differentiation
Process of cells becoming different,
and specializing for different functions
3. Growth
Increase in size, requires input of
matter, food
Embryology Sequence of Events:

1. Fertilization
2. Cleavage
3. Gastrulation
4. Organogenesis
1. Fertilization

Gametes join in fertilization

gametes are produced
(gametogenesis) through meiosis
What process produces every other
cell in the human body?
MITOSIS
Let the Division Begin!
 2. Cleavage

 Cleavage is a series of rapid mitotic divisions

(without cell growth)
 The two-celled zygote divides repeatedly until
a ball of 32 cells is formed

 This is the morula - 32 cells 

 Continued divisions make the hollow blastula
 These few cells are pluripotent (have the potential to become
ANY of the 220 types of cells in the human body).
 These are embryonic stem cells
3. Gastrulation
Gastrulation = formation of a gut;
 Major MORPHOGENIC event !!!
 At the end of the cleavage stage, cells making up the
blastula move about and surface proteins help cells
recognize each other
 Location of cells after GASTRULATION determines further
development
 The gastrula is formed, which can consists of 3 “germ
layers”
1. Endoderm “inside skin”
2. Mesoderm “middle skin”
3. Ectoderm “outside skin”
 Will yield Archenteron in primitive animals
“ancient gut” = first formation of "inside tube."
Development in Classification
Tissues -collections of specialized cells
working together and isolated from
other tissues by membranous layers.
(germ layers)
• Diploblastic Animals
– Have two germ layers, ectoderm and
endoderm. (Jellyfish)
• Triploblastic Animals
– Have three germ layers, ecto-,
meso-, and endoderm. (Vertebrates)
Gastrulation
 Early embryonic development in animals

1 The zygote of an animal 2 Only one cleavage 3 In most animals, cleavage results in the
undergoes a succession of mitotic stage–the eight-cell formation of a multicellular stage called a blastula.
cell divisions called cleavage. embryo–is shown here. The blastula of many animals is a hollow ball of cells.

Blastocoel

Cleavage Cleavage

6 The endoderm of
the archenteron de-
velops into the tissue Eight-cell stage Blastula Cross section
lining the animal’s Zygote of blastula
digestive tract.
Blastocoel
Endoderm
5 The blind pouch
formed by gastru-
lation, called
the archenteron,
Ectoderm
opens to the outside
via the blastopore. Gastrula Gastrulation
Blastopore 4 Most animals also undergo gastrulation, a rearrangement of the
embryo in which one end of the embryo folds inward, expands, and
eventually fills the blastocoel, producing layers of embryonic tissues:
the ectoderm (outer layer) and the endoderm (inner layer).
 Body Cavity Development
Body Cavity (Coelom) – is a fluid-filled space
separating digestive tract from outer body wall.
Cushions internal organs, allows internal organs
to move independently of the outer body wall,
hydroskeleton in some animals (earthworm).
Animals with no coelom - acoelomates
Animals with a true coelom – coelomates –
coelom forms from mesoderm to become
mesenteries and suspend internal organs.
Animals form a cavity from the blastocoel -
pseudocoelomates
Organisms without body cavities
Are considered acoelomates

Body covering
(from ectoderm)
Acoelomate.
Acoelomates such as Tissue-
flatworms lack a body filled region
(from
cavity between the mesoderm)

digestive tract and

outer body wall.

Digestive tract
(from endoderm)
 A pseudocoelom
a body cavity derived from the blastocoel, rather than from mesoderm

Body covering
(from ectoderm)

Pseudocoelomates
such as nematodes
have a body cavity
only partially lined Muscle layer
by tissue derived (from
Pseudocoelom
from mesoderm. mesoderm)

Digestive tract
(from ectoderm)
A true body cavity is called a coelom and is derived from mesoderm

Body covering
(from ectoderm)
Coelom

Coelomate.
Coelomates such
as annelids have a
true coelom, a Tissue layer
body cavity lining coelom
completely lined by and suspending
tissue derived from internal organs
mesoderm. (from mesoderm)

Digestive tract
(from endoderm)
 Coelomates will further branch into
either a Protostome or
Deuterostome

Based on certain features seen in early development

3 Characteristics Determine the Group:
Cleavage Pattern (Cell Division)
Coelom Formation
Fate of the Blastopore
 Cleavage Pattern (Cell Division)
In protostome development
Cleavage is spiral (mitotic spindles at diagonals to embryo axis) and
determinate (cells fixed on a developmental pathway)
In deuterostome development
Cleavage is radial (spindles parallel and perpendicular) and indeterminate
(cells can adjust)

Protostome development Deuterostome development

(examples: molluscs, annelids, (examples: echinoderms,
arthropods) chordates)

(a) Cleavage. In general, protostome

Eight-cell stage
development begins with spiral,
Eight-cell stage
determinate cleavage.
Deuterostome development is
characterized by radial, indeterminate
cleavage.

Spiral and determinate Radial and indeterminate

Coelom Formation
In protostome development, the solid
mass of mesoderm cells split to form
the coelom

In deuterostome development,

mesoderm buds from endoderm
 Fate of the Blastopore

 In protostome development the blastopore becomes the mouth

 In deuterostome development the blastopore becomes the anus

Anus Mouth

Digestive tube

Mouth Anus

Mouth develops Anus develops

from blastopore from blastopore
4. Organogenesis
Organogenesis Purpose:
 Formation of organs from three germ layers
 Differentiation & continued Morphogenesis
1. Ectoderm will form the following:
 Epidermis
 Lining of mouth & rectum
 Cornea of eye
 Lens of eye
 Nervous system
 Thin linings of gut & branches
 lining of excretory ducts, bladder
 Lining of lungs, trachea
 Lining of reproductive ducts, uterus, vas deferens
 liver
 pancreas
Organogenesis
2. Mesoderm will form the following:
Skeleton,
Muscles (skeletal, smooth, cardiac)
Dermis of skin
Heart, blood, blood vessels
Kidneys,
Ovaries/testes, etc.
Organogenesis

3. Ectoderm forms the

following:
Epidermis
 How Nervous system
gets inside
a. Dorsal surface of
embryo forms Neural
plate
b. Plate sinks inward
forming Neural groove
c. Edges of groove fuse to
separate Neural tube
from epidermis
Extraembryonic Membranes

These membranes develop from the

germ layers, but are NOT part of the
embryo (they are lost at birth)
They lie outside of the embryo &
provide protection and nourishment
Four exist in terrestrial vertebrates:
Chorion, amnion, allantois (stores
nitrogenous waste in reptiles), &
yolk sac (not found in humans, but
yolk aids in formation of RBC
 Human Development
 The gestation period lasts 266 days from
fertilization to birth
 Organogenesis (development of the organs and
organ systems) begins with the nervous
system

 Think on this:
Do all animals have the same gestation
period?
Patterns of Organization

4 Ways of Animal Organization:

• Symmetry (Asymmetry, Radial,
Bilateral)
• Tissue Organization (Diploblastic,
Triploblastic)
• Body Cavity Development (Acoelomate,
Pseudocoelomate, Coelomate)
• Embryological Development
(Protostome and Deuterostome)
Symmetry

• Asymmetry – arrangement of body parts without a central axis or

point (sponges).
– No complex sensory or locomotion functions.
• Radial Symmetry – arrangement of body parts such that a single
plane passing through the oral-aboral axis divides the animal into
mirror images (sea anemones, starfish).
– No blind side.
• Bilateral Symmetry - arrangement of body parts such that a
single plane passing through the longitudinal axis divides the animal
into right and left mirror images (vertebrates).
– Cephalization – form distinct head to analyze the environment as they
move through it.
 Some animals have radial symmetry like in a flower pot

Radial symmetry. The

parts of a radial
animal, such as a sea
anemone (phylum
Cnidaria), radiate
from the center. Any
imaginary slice
through the central
axis divides the
animal into mirror
images.
Some animals exhibit bilateral symmetry or two-sided symmetry

Bilateral symmetry. A
bilateral
animal, such as a
lobster (phylum
Arthropoda), has a
left side and a right
side. Only one
imaginary cut
divides the animal
into mirror-image
halves.
What Kind of Symmetry Do I Have?
What Kind of Symmetry Do I Have?
What Kind of Symmetry Do We Have?
 Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Anatomical Planes and Directions

Fig. 7.9

Sagittal
plane

7-9 Bilateral Symmetry

 Directional Terms

1. Anterior and Posterior

a. Anterior refers to being towards the front
b. Posterior refers to being towards the
back
2. Dorsal and Ventral
a. Dorsal refers to the upper back region
b. Ventral refers to the bottom region,
relating to the underside
Directional Terms

3. Superior and Inferior

a. Superior refers to being
above
b. Inferior refers to being
below
Directional Terms
4. Proximal and Distal
a. Proximal refers to being
closer to a point of attachment
or the trunk
b. Distal refers to being farther
away from a point of
attachment or the trunk
Directional Terms

5. Medial and Lateral

a. Medial refers to being closer to
a vertical midline

b. Lateral refers to being closer to

the sides with relation to the
midline
Directional Terms
6. Superficial and Deep
a. Superficial refers to being
closer to the surface
b. Deep refers to being more
internal
7. Plantar
Refers to the sole of the foot
Body Planes (Sections)

The body can be sectioned in three different planes. Each

one gives a different perspective.
 Body Planes (Sections)

1. Sagittal Section – lengthwise (vertical)

cut that divides the body into right & left
halves
2. Transverse Section – horizontal cut that
divides the body into inferior and
superior portions
3. Coronal Section – vertical cut that
divides the body into anterior & posterior
portions
Hot Dog Dissection
Objectives:
 The student will become familiar with directional terminology.
 The student will become familiar with body section cuts.
Procedure:
 Identify the superior and inferior position on your specimen.
Label these regions on your paper plate.
 Identify the anterior and posterior position on your specimen.
 Using a permanent marker, draw a sagittal body plane on the
anterior portion of your specimen. Specimen must be dry for
this!
 Discuss with your partner how medial & lateral relate to this
sagittal plane.
 Make a medial superficial incision on the posterior side from the
superior to the inferior position.
 Now make a superficial transverse incision on the anterior side
proximal to the arms.
 On the inferior, anterior tip, remove a 1-inch section. Use this
section to cut a coronal section.
 Label the plantar region.
 Using the examples in your notes, relate the body terminology
to the relative position terminology.