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Moon’s co-declination
Tides - Spring Tide
• The sun has a similar tide producing effect on the earth to that of the moon. However the forces involved are not as great.
• At new and full moon the sun, moon and earth are nearly in a straight line. The tide raising forces act together to produce
tides with a large range. These tides occur fortnightly and are called spring tides
Tides - Neap Tide
• At the moon's first and last quarter the moon's tide raising force is to some extent counteracted by the sun's tide raising
force producing tides with a small range.
• These tides are called neap tides (neap being high water at its lowest value).
Soundings
• Tide Levels
– Mean Sea Level ( MSL )
• average height of the sea in all states of the
oscillation
• equivalent to the level which would exist in the
absence of all tidal forces
• approximates the geoid
Soundings
• Tide Levels (cont)
– Lead Line
• lead weight attached to the line’s end to take it to
the bottom
Soundings
• Sounding Equipment (cont)
– Sonar Equipment
• Sound Navigation Ranging
• measure the range of an object by timing the two
way journey of pulse of sound energy and
converting the result to units of distance
Soundings - Echo Sounder
3
4
Soundings - Echo Sounder
• Recorder
– paper record or trace
– digital display
– punch tape
– cassette recorder
– digital readout to a
computer
Soundings - Echo Sounder
• Recorder
– when a horizontal fix occurs a fix
button is pressed and the moment is
recorded on the trace
» fix is numbered so that it can be
correlated with position fixes
made
» time is recorded at the first and
last fix and for every tenth fix -
enables the tide gauge readings
to be correlated with the depth
readings
Soundings - Echo Sounder
• Transducer
– transmitting transducer vibrations generates pressure
waves which are projected into the water medium and
detected by a receiving transducer
– may be
» hull mounted
» mounted in a shoe, or
» towed in a ‘fish’ enabling the sounder to operate at
any depth
• Receiving Amplifier
– amplifies the weak return signal
Soundings - Echo Sounder
– The shape of the beam is
assumed to be a cone
– the frequency of the sound signal
determines the beam width and
the reflective and penetrative
capabilities of the pulse
– the wider the beam width the
wider the lane widths and a
lesser number of runs are
required
Soundings - Echo Sounder
– the width of the beam varies with
the water depth
• possible to miss a prominent high
point if the line spacing does not
allow for any overlap
– If a wide beam is used on a
sloping seabed then an incorrect
depth which (will be that of the
first returning signal) will be
recorded for the depth
immediately under the boat
Soundings - Echo Sounder
– Thus for precise work it is essential that a
narrow beam is used.
• disadvantage is an increase in the number of lines
necessary to cover the same area in order to achieve
a saturated examination.
Soundings - Echo Sounder
– A dual frequency echo sounder using a narrow
beam width frequency together with a wide
beam width frequency are used at the same
time to overcome this problem.
Soundings - Echo Sounder
– dual frequency echo sounder enables
• an accurate depth to be obtained below the vessel
• check on the presence of any high points to the
side of the vessel.
– lane widths can be widened compared with
those for a single narrow beam
Soundings - Echo Sounder
– Calibration
• velocity of the pulse varies with the temperature
and salinity of the water
• time taken for the outward and return pulse will
vary and the depth indicated will vary
Soundings - Echo Sounder
– Calibration
• three methods of calibration
– Calculation
» use the temperature and salinity of the water to
calculate the velocity of sound within the water
– Direct Calibration
» when the bottom is smooth and level, the recorder
may be calibrated by by comparison with direct
sounding by lead line
Soundings - Echo Sounder
– Calibration
• third method of calibration
– Bar Check
» a metal bar is lowered under the transducers to
known depths below the water
» the echo sounder is adjusted until the correct depth
is measured
» checks are made at other depths
Soundings - Echo Sounder
– Calibration
• Squat
– when a vessel moves through
the water at different speeds it
settles differently in the water
– the amount of squat will depend
on
» the speed
» the loading
» hull shape
Soundings - Reduction of Echo
Sounder Traces
– Calibration
• Squat
– determined by
» sailing over an area of known depth at different
speeds - the different depth readings record the
differences due to squat
» a staff is set up at the bow and the stern of the vessel
- the vessel is sailed past at different speeds and a
level used to read the staves - the squat is
determined from the differing levels
Soundings - Reduction of Echo
Sounder Traces
• The soundings at each fix are not
reduced separately.
Soundings - Reduction of Echo
Sounder Traces
• Note the three level lines drawn on
the diagram
Squat
Transmission Line
MLWS
Difference
obtained from
tide board
readings
Soundings - Reduction of Echo
Sounder Traces Water line
Transmission Line
MLWS