Electronic Devices: Floyd

Electronic Devices
Ninth Edition
Floyd
Chapter 10
Electronic Devices, 9th edition © 2012 Pearson Education. Upper Saddle River, NJ, 07458.
Thomas L. Floyd All rights reserved.
Summary
Effect of Coupling Capacitors

Coupling capacitors are in series with the signal and are
part of a high-pass filter network. They affect the low-
frequency response of the amplifier.
The equivalent circuit for C1 is a +VCC
high-pass filter:
C1 RC C3
R1
C1
Vin Rin RL
Vin R2 RE C2
C3 and (RC + RL) form another high-

pass filter.
Summary
Effect of Coupling Capacitors

With FETs, the input coupling capacitor is almost always
smaller because of the high input resistance. The output
capacitor may be smaller or larger depending on the drain
and load resistor size. +V DD
For the circuit shown, the RD C3

equivalent low-pass filter for
C1
the input is simply C1 in
series with RG because the
RL
gate input resistance is so
high. Vin RG RS C2
Summary
Effect of Bypass Capacitors

A bypass capacitor causes reduced gain at low-frequencies
and has a high-pass filter response. The resistors “seen” by
the bypass capacitor include RE, re’, and the bias resistors.
The equivalent high-pass filter for C2 +VCC
is: C2
RC C3
R1
C1
' (R1 || R 2 || R S )
Vin RE || re +
b
RL
Vin R2 RE C2
How would an emitter swamping
resistor affect the response?
fc would be lower due to increased R.
Summary
Internal Capacitances
The high-frequency response of an amplifier is determined
by internal junction capacitances. These capacitances form
low-pass filters with the external resistors.
Sometimes a designer
Cbc Cgd
will add an external
parallel capacitor to
deliberately reduce the
Cbe Cgs
high frequency response.
Summary
Miller’s Theorem
Miller’s theorem states that, for inverting amplifiers, the
capacitance between the input and output is equivalent to
separate input and output capacitances to ground.
C
Av
In Av Out
C(Av + 1) C (A A+ 1 )
v
v
Av is the absolute value of the gain. For the input capacitance, the
gain has a large effect on the equivalent capacitance, which is an
important consideration when using inverting amplifiers.
Summary
Miller’s Theorem
Notice that the effect of Miller’s theorem is an equivalent
capacitance to ground, which shunts high frequencies to
ground and reduces the gain as frequency is increased.
What is the input capacitance for a Rs

2N3904 inverting amplifier with a
Rc
gain of 25? Assume the values of Vin Cbe
Cbc = 4 pF and Cbe = 6 pF.
Cbc(Av + 1) Cbc (A A+ 1 )
v
v
Cin = Cbc(Av + 1) + Cbe
Cin = 4 pF(25 + 1) + 6 pF = 110 pF
Summary
The Decibel
The decibel is a logarithmic ratio of two power levels and is
used in electronics work in gain or attenuation measurements.
Decibels can be expressed as a voltage ratio when the
voltages are measured in the same impedance.
To express power gain in decibels, the formula is
Ap(dB) = 10 log Ap
To express voltage gain in decibels, the formula is
Av(dB) = 20 log Av
Summary
The Decibel
Sometimes, 0 dB is assigned as a convenient reference level
for comparison. Then, other power or voltage levels are
shown with respect to 0 dB.
Some useful decibel ratios to remember are:
Ratio Power gain, Ap Voltage gain, Av
The -3 dB power gain
0.1 -10 dB -20 dB corresponds to a power
0.5 -3 dB -6 dB reduction of one-half.
1 0 dB 0 dB The frequency at which
2 3 dB 6 dB this occurs is referred to
10 10 dB 20 dB as the critical frequency.
Summary
Low-Frequency Response
In capacitively coupled amplifiers, the coupling and bypass
capacitors affect the low frequency cutoff. These capacitors
form a high-pass filter with circuit resistances. A typical BJT
amplifier has three high-pass filters.
For example, the input coupling
+VCC
capacitor forms a high-pass filter with
the input resistance of the amplifier: RC C3
R1 Vout
C1 C1
Transistor base
Vin Vin
RL
Vbase
Rin = R1 || R2 || Rin(base) R2 RE C2
Summary
The output RC circuit is composed of the series combination

of the collector and load resistors with the output capacitor.
The cutoff frequency due to the output circuit is
1
fc 
2  RC  RL  C3 +VCC
RC C3
R1 Vout
C1
Vin
RL
R2 RE C2
Summary
What is the lower cutoff frequency due to C1?

Assume re’ = 3.5 W and b = 200. +V CC
+12 V
RC C3
RE1 is not bypassed, so it is added to R1 1.0 kW Vout
re’. Then: C1 10 kW
10 µF
Rin  R1  R2  β( RE1  r )
e
' Vin 2N3904
 10 kW  4.7 kW  200(100 W + 3.5 W) 1.0 µF

RE1
100 W
= 2.77 kW R2
1 1 4.7 kW
fc    57 Hz RE2 C2
2πRC 2π  2.77 kW 1.0 μF 330 W 47 µF
Summary
The bypass RC circuit response can be found by observing
the charge/discharge paths.
+VCC
For this circuit, there is one path +12 V
through RE2.
A second path goes through RE1, re’, R1
RC
1.0 kW
C3
Vout
and the parallel combination of bias C1 10 kW
10 µF
and source resistances (source Vin 2N3904
resistance not shown). 1.0 µF
RE1
The total resistance of the paths 100 W
R2
can be found by: 4.7 kW
RE2 C2
 R  R  R  330 W
Requiv  RE2   1 2 s  re'  RE1 
47 µF
 β 
Summary
What is the critical frequency due to the bypass RC circuit?

(Assume Rs = 600 W and b = 200 +VCC
and re’ = 2.6 W).
+12 V
RC C3
1.0 kW Vout
 R  R  R 
R1
Requiv  RE2   1 2 s  re'  RE1  C1 10 kW
10 µF
 β  Vin 2N3904
 330 W  2.5 W + 2.6 W + 100 W

1.0 µF
RE1
100 W
= 79.7 W R2
4.7 kW
1 1
fc    42.5 Hz RE2 C2
2 RC 2  79.7 W  47  F 330 W 47 µF
Summary
The input RC circuit for a FET is a basic high-pass filter

consisting of the bias resistor (or resistors) and the input
coupling capacitor. The FET gate circuit has such high
resistance, it can be ignored. V DD
+12 V
RD
What is the critical frequency 3.3 kW
Vout
due to the input RC circuit? C1
0.1 F
Vin
RG RS C2
1 1 100 mV
fc    1.6 Hz 1.0 MW 680 W 10  F
2 RC 2 1.0 MW  0.1  F 
Summary
The Bode Plot
The Bode plot is a plot of decibel voltage gain verses

frequency. The frequency axis is logarithmic; the decibel
gain is plotted on a linear scale. The -3dB point is the
critical frequency. 0.01 f
c 0.1f
c f 10f
c 100f c c
f
0
–3
Midrange
–20
–40
Av (dB)
Summary
Connect the IN of the plotter
The Bode Plot on a constant level to the left
of the Thevenin source.
Multisim has a fictitious

instrument called the
Bode plotter. This is the
previous BJT amplifier.
The Bode plotter allows you
to see the Bode plot directly.
By selecting the proper
scales, you can magnify the
response. Move the cursor to
the point where the total
response is – 3dB from
Set the cursor 3dB below the
midband and read fc.
midband gain and read fc.
Summary
High-Frequency Response
The high frequency response of inverting amplifiers is

primarily determined by the transistor’s internal capacitance
and the Miller effect. The equivalent high-frequency ac
circuit is shown for a voltage-divider biased CE amplifier
with a fully bypassed emitter resistor.
Rs
Cout(Miller ) Rc = RC || RL
Vin R1 || R2 Cin(Miller) Cbe
Summary
If there is an unbypassed emitter resistor, such as RE1 in the

earlier example, it is shown in the emitter circuit and acts to
increase re’ and thus reduce fc.
Rs
Cout(Miller ) Rc = RC || RL
R1 || R2 Cin(Miller) Cbe RE1
Summary
For the fully bypassed case, such as the one shown in the text
in Example 10-11, the ac emitter resistance (re’) is multiplied
by bac to obtain the equivalent input resistance at the
transistor’s base.
Rs
Base
Vin R1 || R2 Cbe Cin(Miller) βacre′
Summary
Combining the capacitors in parallel and Thevenizing forms

an equivalent basic RC low-pass filter:
Rth = Rs || R1 || R2 || βacr e′
Base
Vth Cbe + Cin(Miller )
Summary
If there is an unbypassed emitter resistor (RE1 in this case),

the Thevenin resistance is modified to
Rth = Rs || R1 || R2 || βac( r e′ + RE1)

Base
Vth Cbe + Cin(Miller )
Summary
What is the upper cutoff frequency due to the input circuit?
Assume RS = 600 W, re’ = 3.5 W, b = 200,
+VCC
Cbe = 6 pF, Cbc = 3.5 pF, and Av = 9.7 +12 V
RC C3
Rth  RS  R1  R2  β( RE1  r )
e
'
R1 1.0 kW Vout
C1 10 kW
 600 W  10 kW  4.7 kW  200(100 W + 3.5 WV) 10 µF
in 2N3904
= 493 W 1.0 µF
Cin (tot )  Cbe  CMiller  Cbe  Cbc ( Av ( mid )  1) RE1
100 W
 6 pF + 3.5 pF(9.7 +1) = 43 pF R2
4.7 kW
1 1
fc    7.4 MHz RE2 C2
2 RC 2  493 W  43 pF 330 W 47 µF
Summary
The high frequency analysis of FETs is similar to that of BJTs. Like
the CE amplifier, the CS amplifier inverts the signal, so the Miller
effect must be taken into account. You may see special circuits such
as cascode connections in very high frequency applications to
minimize the Miller effect.
A high frequency ac model of a CS amplifier is:  A  1
Cout Miller  Cgd v  
Av
Cin Miller   Cgd  Av  1
Rs Rin (gate )
Cout(Miller) Cds Rd
Vin RG Cgs Cin( Miller )
Summary
Total Amplifier-Frequency Response

In general, the overall frequency response is the combination of three
lower critical frequencies due to coupling and bypass capacitors and
two upper critical frequencies due to internal capacitances.
The ideal Bode plot for a typical amplifier is:
Av (dB) The bandwidth is measured between
the dominant critical frequencies.
Av( mid)
BW
0 f
fc1 fc2 fc 3 fc4 fc5
fcl fcu
Summary

The overall response can be viewed on the Bode plotter by choosing
the appropriate scales. The overall response for the BJT example
given previously is shown. +VCC
+12 V
RC C3
R1 1.0 kW Vout
C1 10 kW
10 µF
Vin 2N3904
1.0 µF
RE1
100 W
R2
4.7 kW
RE2 C2
330 W 47 µF
Summary

For multistage amplifiers, the individual stages have an effect on the
overall response.
In general, with different cutoff frequencies, the dominant lower cutoff
frequency is equal to the highest fcl; the dominant upper critical
frequency is equal to lowest fcu.
When the critical frequencies for multistage amplifiers are equal, the
lower critical frequency is higher than any one as given by
f cl
f cl' 
1
2 n -1
and the upper critical frequency is given by
1
f cu'  f cu 2 n - 1
Key Terms
Decibel A logarithmic measure of the ratio of one

power level to another or one voltage to
another.
Midrange gain The gain that occurs for the range of

frequencies between the lower and upper
critical frequencies.
Critical The frequency at which the response of an

frequency amplifier or filter is 3 dB less than at midrange
Key Terms
Roll-off The rate of decrease in the gain of an amplifier

above or below the critical frequencies.
Decade A tem times increase or decrease in the value of

a quantity such as frequency.
Bode Plot An idealized graph of the gain in dB verses

frequency used to graphically illustrate the
response of an amplifier or filter.
Bandwidth The characteristic of certain types of electronic

circuits that specifies the usable range of
frequencies that pass from input to output.
Quiz
1. For a CE amplifier, the emitter bypass capacitor affects

the
a. low-frequency response
b. high-frequency response
c. both of the above
d. none of the above
Quiz
2. For a CS amplifier, the gate-drain capacitance affects the

a. low-frequency response
b. high-frequency response
c. both of the above
Quiz
3. For an inverting amplifier, the Miller effect causes the

equivalent capacitance to ground to appear
a. smaller for both Cin and Cout
b. smaller for Cin and larger for Cout
c. larger for Cin and smaller for Cout
d. larger for both Cin and Cout
Quiz
4. For the CE amplifier shown, the output low-frequency

response is determined by
a. (RC||RL) C3 +VCC
b. (RC||RL) + C3 RC C3
R1 Vout
c. (RC+RL) C3 C1
Vin
d. (RC+RL) + C3 RL
R2 RE C2
Quiz
5. For the CE amplifier shown, the resistor that is not part of

the RC charge and discharge path for (C2) is
a. R1 +VCC
b. R2 RC C3
R1 Vout
c. RC C1
Vin
d. RE RL
R2 RE C2
Quiz
6. The decibel is a ratio of two powers; for this reason the

measurement unit is
a. the volt
b. the watt
c. the volt-amp
d. dimensionless
Quiz
7. At the cutoff frequency for an amplifier, the power output

compared to the midband power output is
a. -2 dB
b. -3 dB
c. +2 dB
d. +3 dB
Quiz
8. The effect of an unbypassed emitter resistor on the upper

cutoff frequency in a CE amplifier is
a. to increase fcu
b. to decrease fcu
c. no effect
Quiz
9. The y-axis of a Bode Plot is used for the

a. frequency scale
b. power scale
c. voltage scale
d. decibel scale
Quiz
10. The term bandwidth refers to those frequencies

a. between the lower and upper critical frequencies
b. above the upper critical frequency
c. below the lower critical frequency
Quiz
Answers:
1. a 6. d
2. b 7. b
3. d 8. b
4. c 9. d
5. c 10. a

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Electronic Devices

Effect of Coupling Capacitors

C3 and (RC + RL) form another high-

Effect of Coupling Capacitors

For the circuit shown, the RD C3

Effect of Bypass Capacitors

What is the input capacitance for a Rs

The output RC circuit is composed of the series combination

What is the lower cutoff frequency due to C1?

 10 kW  4.7 kW  200(100 W + 3.5 W) 1.0 µF

What is the critical frequency due to the bypass RC circuit?

 330 W  2.5 W + 2.6 W + 100 W

The input RC circuit for a FET is a basic high-pass filter

The Bode Plot

The Bode plot is a plot of decibel voltage gain verses

Multisim has a fictitious

The high frequency response of inverting amplifiers is

Vin R1 || R2 Cin(Miller) Cbe

If there is an unbypassed emitter resistor, such as RE1 in the

R1 || R2 Cin(Miller) Cbe RE1

Vin R1 || R2 Cbe Cin(Miller) βacre′

Combining the capacitors in parallel and Thevenizing forms

Vth Cbe + Cin(Miller )

If there is an unbypassed emitter resistor (RE1 in this case),

Rth = Rs || R1 || R2 || βac( r e′ + RE1)

Vth Cbe + Cin(Miller )

Total Amplifier-Frequency Response

Total Amplifier-Frequency Response

Total Amplifier-Frequency Response

Decibel A logarithmic measure of the ratio of one

Midrange gain The gain that occurs for the range of

Critical The frequency at which the response of an

Roll-off The rate of decrease in the gain of an amplifier

Decade A tem times increase or decrease in the value of

Bode Plot An idealized graph of the gain in dB verses

Bandwidth The characteristic of certain types of electronic

1. For a CE amplifier, the emitter bypass capacitor affects

2. For a CS amplifier, the gate-drain capacitance affects the

3. For an inverting amplifier, the Miller effect causes the

4. For the CE amplifier shown, the output low-frequency

5. For the CE amplifier shown, the resistor that is not part of

6. The decibel is a ratio of two powers; for this reason the

7. At the cutoff frequency for an amplifier, the power output

8. The effect of an unbypassed emitter resistor on the upper

9. The y-axis of a Bode Plot is used for the

10. The term bandwidth refers to those frequencies

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