Electricity

• Electricity is the flow of electrons

• Good conductors (copper) have easily released electrons that drift within the metal

• Under influence of electric field, electrons flow in a current

• magnitude of current depends on magnitude of voltage applied to circuit, and the resistance in
the path of the circuit
V = IR
• Current flow governed by Ohm’s Law

+
electron flow direction

-
Semiconductors are materials whose electrical properties lie
between Conductors and Insulators.

Ex : Silicon and Germanium

Give the examples of Conductors and Insulators!

Difference in conductivity
Semiconductor Materials
• Elemental semiconductors – Si and Ge (column IV of periodic table) –compose of single species
of atoms

• Compound semiconductors – combinations of atoms of column III and column V and some
atoms from column II and VI. (combination of two atoms results in binary compounds)

• There are also three-element (ternary) compounds (GaAsP) and four-elements (quaternary)
compounds such as InGaAsP.
Resistivity vs. Temperature

Figure 11.1: (a) Resistivity versus temperature for a typical conductor. Notice the linear rise in
resistivity with increasing temperature at all but very low temperatures. (b) Resistivity versus
temperature for a typical conductor at very low temperatures. Notice that the curve flattens and
approaches a nonzero resistance as T → 0. (c) Resistivity versus temperature for a typical
semiconductor. The resistivity increases dramatically as T → 0.
5
Semiconductor
materials
 Electron Bands
• Electrons circle nucleus in defined shells L
• K 2 electrons
• L 8 electrons K
• M18 electrons
• N 32 electrons
• Within each shell, electrons are further grouped
into subshells
• s 2 electrons
• p 6 electrons
• d 10 electrons
• f 14 electrons M shell
• electrons are assigned to shells and d 10
subshells from inside out p 6
• Si has 14 electrons: 2 K, 8 L, 4 M
s 2
 Semiconductor Crystalline Structure
• Semiconductors have a regular

• Atoms occupy fixed positions relative to

one another, but are in constant vibration
about equilibrium
Semiconductor Crystalline Structure
• Silicon atoms have 4 electrons in outer
shell
• inner electrons are very closely bound
to atom
• These electrons are shared with
neighbor
atoms on both sides to “fill” the shell
• resulting structure is very stable
• electrons are fairly tightly bound
• no “loose” electrons
• at room temperature, if battery
applied, very little electric current
flows
Conduction in Crystal Lattices
• Semiconductors (Si and Ge) have 4 electrons in their outer shell
• 2 in the s subshell
• 2 in the p subshell
• As the distance between atoms decreases the discrete subshells
spread out into bands
• As the distance decreases further, the bands overlap and then
separate
• the subshell model doesn’t hold anymore, and the electrons can be thought
of as being part of the crystal, not part of the atom
• 4 possible electrons in the lower band (valence band)
• 4 possible electrons in the upper band (conduction band)
Band theory of a solid
• A solid is formed by bringing together isolated single atoms.
• Consider the combination of two atoms. If the atoms are far apart
there is no interaction between them and the energy levels are the
same for each atom. The numbers of levels at a particular energy is
n=3 n=3
simply doubled n=2 n=2

n=1 n=1

Atom 1 Atom 2

• If the atoms are close together the electron wave functions will
overlap and the energy levels are shifted with respect to each
other.
n=3 n=3 n=3

n=2 n=2 n=2

n=1 n=1 n=1

Atom 1 Atom 2 Atom 1 + 2

 n=3

n=2

n=1

A solid will have millions

of atoms close together in a lattice so these
Conduction band,
energy levels will creates bands each separated by a gap. half filled with
electrons

• Conductors: Valence band,

If we have used up all the electrons available filled with
and a band is still only half filled, electrons
the solid is said to be a good conductor.
The half filled band is known as the conduction band.
• Insulators: Empty
If, when we have used up all the electrons the highest conduction band
band is full and the next one is empty with a large Large energy gap
gap between the two bands, the material is said to
be a good insulator. Valence band,
The highest filled band is known as filled with
the valence band while the electrons
empty next band is known as the conduction band.
Semiconductors:

• Some materials have a filled valence band just like

Empty
insulators but a small gap to the conduction band. conduction band

• At zero Kelvin the material behave just like an insulator Small energy gap

but at room temperature, it is possible for some Valence bands,

filled with
electrons to acquire the energy to jump up to the electrons

conduction band. The electrons move easily through

this conduction band under the application of an At zero Kelvin – no conduction

electric field. This is an intrinsic semiconductor.

Conduction
band, with some
electrons

Top valence
band now
missing some
electrons

At room temperature – some conduction

Energy Bands in Semiconductors
• The space
between
the bands is
the energy
gap, or
forbidden
band
Valence and Conduction Bands

• The band structures of insulators and semiconductors resemble each other

qualitatively. Normally there exists in both insulators and semiconductors a filled
energy band (referred to as the valence band) separated from the next higher band
(referred to as the conduction band) by an energy gap.

• If this gap is at least several electron volts, the material is an insulator. It is too
difficult for an applied field to overcome that large an energy gap, and thermal
excitations lack the energy to promote sufficient numbers of electrons to the
conduction band.

16
Insulators, Semiconductors, and Metals
• This separation of the valence and conduction bands determines the
electrical properties of the material
• Insulators have a large energy gap
• electrons can’t jump from valence to conduction bands
• no current flows
• Conductors (metals) have a very small (or nonexistent) energy gap
• electrons easily jump to conduction bands due to thermal excitation
• current flows easily
• Semiconductors have a moderate energy gap
• only a few electrons can jump to the conduction band
• leaving “holes”
• only a little current can flow
Insulators, Semiconductors, and Metals
(continued)
Conduction
Band

Valence
Band

Conductor Semiconductor Insulator

 Electrons and Holes
Si and Ge are tetravalent elements – each atom of Si (Ge) has 4 valence electrons in crystal matrix

T=0 all electrons are bound in For T> 0 thermal fluctuations can
covalent bonds break electrons free creating
electron-hole pairs
no carriers available for
conduction. Both can move throughout the lattice
and therefore conduct current.
Electrons and Holes
Electron-hole pairs in a semiconductor.
The bottom of the conduction band
denotes as Ec and the top of the valence
band denotes as Ev.
For T>0
some electrons in the valence band receive
enough thermal energy to be excited
across the band gap to the conduction
band.
The result is a material with some electrons
in an otherwise empty conduction band and
some unoccupied states in an otherwise
filled valence band.
An empty state in the valence band is
referred to as a hole.
If the conduction band electron and the
hole are created by the excitation of a
valence band electron to the conduction
band, they are called an electron-hole
pair (EHP).
Intrinsic Material
A perfect semiconductor crystal with no impurities or lattice defects is called an
intrinsic semiconductor.
At T>0
At T=0 K –
Electron-hole pairs are generated
No charge carriers
Valence band is filled with electrons EHPs are the only charge carriers in
Conduction band is empty intrinsic material
Since electron and holes are created in
pairs – the electron concentration in
conduction band, n (electron/cm3) is
equal to the concentration of holes in the
valence band, p (holes/cm3).
Each of these intrinsic carrier
concentrations is denoted ni.
Thus for intrinsic materials n=p=ni

Electron-hole pairs in the covalent bonding

model in the Si crystal.
Intrinsic Material
• At a given temperature there is a certain concentration of electron-hole pairs ni. If a steady state carrier
concentration is maintained, there must be recombination of EHPs at the same rate at which they are
generated. Recombination occurs when an electron in the conduction band makes a transition to an empty
state (hole) in the valence band, thus annihilating the pair. If we denote the generation rate of EHPs as gi
(EHP/cm3·s) and the recombination rate as ri, equilibrium requires that
ri = gi
• Each of these rates is temperature dependent. For example, gi(T) increases when the temperature is raised,
and a new carrier concentration ni is established such that the higher recombination rate ri (T) just balances
generation. At any temperature, we can predict that the rate of recombination of electrons and holes ri, is
proportional to the equilibrium concentration of electrons n0 and the concentration of holes p0:
ri = r n0 p0 = r ni2 = gi

• The factor r is a constant of proportionality which depends on the particular mechanism by which
recombination takes place.
Increasing conductivity
• The conductivity of the semiconductor material increases when the temperature increases.
• This is because the application of heat makes it possible for some electrons in the valence band to move to
the conduction band.
• Obviously the more heat applied the higher the number of electrons that can gain the required energy to
make the conduction band transition and become available as charge carriers.
• This is how temperature affects the carrier concentration.

• Another way to increase the number of charge carriers is to add them in from an external source.
• Doping or implant is the term given to a process whereby one element is injected with atoms of another
element in order to change its properties.
• Semiconductors (Si or Ge) are typically doped with elements such as Boron, Arsenic and Phosphorous to
change and enhance their electrical properties.
Extrinsic Material
By doping, a crystal can be altered so that it has a predominance of either electrons or holes. Thus there are
two types of doped semiconductors, n-type (mostly electrons) and p-type (mostly holes). When a crystal is
doped such that the equilibrium carrier concentrations n0 and po are different from the intrinsic carrier
concentration ni, the material is said to be extrinsic.

When impurities or lattice

Donor impurities (elements defects are introduced,
of group V): P, Sb, As additional levels are created
Acceptor elements (group
III): B, Al, Ga, In in the energy bands
structure, usually within the
band gap.

Total number of electrons

III – Al – 13
The valence and conduction bands of IV – Si – 14
silicon with additional impurity energy
levels within the energy gap. V- P - 15
 An impurity from column V introduces an
Extrinsic Material
n-type material – donation of electrons
energy level very near the conduction band
in Ge or Si. This level is filled with electrons
at 0 K, and very little thermal energy is
required to excite these electrons to the
conduction band. Thus, at about 50-100 K
nearly all of the electrons in the impurity
level are "donated" to the conduction band.
Such an impurity level is called a donor level,
and the column V impurities in Ge or Si are
called donor impurities. From figure we note
that the material doped with donor
impurities can have a considerable
concentration of electrons in the conduction
band, even when the temperature is too low
for the intrinsic EHP concentration to be
Donation of electrons from
appreciable. Thus semiconductors doped
a donor level to the
with a significant number of donor atoms
conduction band
will have n0>>(ni,p0) at room temperature.
This is n-type material.
Extrinsic Material
P-type material – acceptance
Atoms from column
Acceptance of valence band
electrons by an acceptor level,
and the resulting creation of
holes.
ofIIIelectrons
(B, Al, Ga, and
In) introduce impurity levels in Ge or Si
near the valence band. These levels are
empty of electrons at 0 K. At low
temperatures, enough thermal energy is
available to excite electrons from the
valence band into the impurity level,
leaving behind holes in the valence band.
Since this type of impurity level
"accepts" electrons from the valence
band, it is called an acceptor level, and
the column III impurities are acceptor
impurities in Ge and Si. As figure
indicates, doping with acceptor
impurities can create a semiconductor
with a hole concentration p0 much
greater than the conduction band
electron concentration n0 (this is p-
type material).
Donor and acceptors in covalent bonding
In the covalent bonding model, donor and
acceptor atoms can be visualized as shown in
model the Figure. An Sb atom (column V) in the Si
lattice has the four necessary valence
electrons to complete the covalent bonds
with the neighboring Si atoms, plus one extra
electron. This fifth electron does not fit into
the bonding structure of the lattice and is
therefore loosely bound to the Sb atom. A
small amount of thermal energy enables this
extra electron to overcome its coulombic
binding to the impurity atom and be donated
to the lattice as a whole. Thus it is free to
participate in current conduction. This
Donor and acceptor atoms process is a qualitative model of the
in the covalent bonding excitation of electrons out of a donor level
and into the conduction band.
model of a Si crystal.
Similarly, the column III impurity Al has only
three valence electrons to contribute to the
covalent bonding, thereby leaving one bond
incomplete. With a small amount of thermal
energy, this incomplete bond can be
transferred to other atoms as the bonding
electrons exchange positions.
 Atoms

• An atom is the smallest particle of an element that retains the characteristics of that
element.
• It is made out of a nucleus and a number negatively charged electrons. Electrons
are orbiting in one or more shells around the nucleus.
• The nucleus consists of positively charged particles, called protons, and
uncharged particles called neutrons.

AELE237 Semiconductor Materials 28

 Examples of Atoms

• Some typical elements are the Hydrogen that has only 1 electron and one proton,
the Helium that has 2 electrons, two protons and two neutrons, and the Silicon that
has 14 electrons and 14 protons.
-
-
- -

-
- - - - +14 - - -

+ + + - -

- -
-

Hydrogen Helium Silicon

AELE237 Semiconductor Materials 29

 The Bohr Model

AELE237 Semiconductor Materials 30

 Valance Electrons, Free Electrons and Conductivity

• Orbiting electrons in an atom are attracted by the positively charged protons.

• Electrons in orbits farther from the nucleus are less tightly bound to the atom than
those closer to the nucleus.
• Electrons in the outermost shell of an atom are relatively loosely bound to the atom.
These electrons are called the valance electrons and contribute to chemical
reactions and bonding within the structure of a material.
• When an atom absorbs energy from a heat source or from light, its electrons gain
energy and move to an orbit farther from the nucleus.If a valance electron gains
sufficient amount of energy, it can be completely removed from the atom, and
become a free electron.
• The number of free electrons in a material determines its resistance to electric
current. This number increases as the temperature increases.
• Materials with relatively few free electrons are called insulators, and posses a high
resistance to electric current. Materials with relatively large number of free
electrons are called conductors, and posses a low resistance to electric current.

AELE237 Semiconductor Materials 31

AELE237 Semiconductor Materials 32
 Semiconductor Crystals
• Two widely used types of semiconductor -

materials are Silicon and Germanium.

• Their atoms have 4 valance electrons. - Si -

• When their atoms combine to form a solid -

- -
-

- -
material, they arrange themselves in a
fixed pattern called a crystal. - Si Si Si -

• The atoms within a crystal are held -

- -
-

- -
together by covalent bonds, which are
created by the valance electrons of each - Si -

atom.
-
• Covalent bonds the atoms together,
because the valance electrons of adjacent
atoms are attracted equally by the protons
in the nucleus of the atoms.
• A small number of valance electrons can
escape and become free electron, leaving
a positively charged Hole in the atom.
AELE237 Semiconductor Materials 33
AELE237 Semiconductor Materials 34
AELE237 Semiconductor Materials 35
 n-Type Semiconductors
• Intrinsic (pure) semiconductor materials have
-
a low conductivity, due to the small number of
free electrons. Free
Electron
- Si - -

• Their conductivity can be increased and

- -
controlled by the addition of impurities. This -
- -
-
process is called doping.
- Si Sb Si -
• Atoms such as the Antimony (Sb) have 5
-
valance electrons. When these atoms are -
- -
-

-
added in pure silicon, then each antimony
atom forms a covalent bond with the four - Si -

adjacent silicone atoms, leaving one free

electron that is not attracted by any atom. -

• The number of free electrons can be

controlled by the amount of impurity added to - - - - -
- - - - -
the silicon. - -
n-type
• The semiconductor produced by adding - - - - -
pentavalent (impurities with 5 valance - - - - -
electrons) impurities to pure semiconductors
is called the n-type semiconductor.

AELE237 Semiconductor Materials 36

 p-Type Semiconductors
• Atoms such as the Boron (B) have 3 valance -

electrons. When these atoms are added in

pure silicon, then each boron atom forms a - Si -
Hole
covalent bond with the four adjacent silicone - -

atoms. An electron is though missing since -

-
-

boron has only 3 valance electrons, leaving a - Si B Si -

positively charged hole. - -

• The number of holes in the semiconductor -

- -
-

material can be controlled by the amount of - Si -

impurity added to the silicon.

• The semiconductor produced by adding -

trivalent (impurities with 3 valance electrons)

+ + + + +
impurities to pure semiconductors is called + + + + +
the p-type semiconductor. + p-type +
+ + + + +
+ + + + +

AELE237 Semiconductor Materials 37

 pn- junction
• A pn junction is formed by connecting a p-
type semiconductor with an n-type
semiconductor.
• Initially, at the point of contact, the free
electrons of the n-type region recombine
with the holes of the p-type region.
• Due to the force of attraction between the
electrons and holes, some electrons move
to the p-region while some holes move to
the n-region.
• At some point the force on the
electrons that moved in the p-region is
the same as the force due to the holes
that moved in the n-region, thus these
electrons are trapped in the p-region.
• The same applies to the holes that
moved in the n-region.
• This creates a barrier between the two
regions, called the Depletion Layer.

Depletion
Layer

+ + + + + + - - - - - - + + + + + - - + + - - - - -
+ + + + + + - - - - - - + + + + + - - + + - - - - -
+ p-type + - n-type - + p-type - - + + n-type -
+ + + + + + - - - - - - + + + + + - - + + - - - - -
+ + + + + + - - - - - - + + + + + - - + + - - - - -

VD

AELE237 Semiconductor Materials 38

AELE237 Semiconductor Materials 39
AELE237 Semiconductor Materials 40
 Biasing the pn-junction:- Forward Bias (V < VD)

Depletion
Layer
+ + + + + - - - - -
+ + + + + - - - - -
+ p-type + - n-type -
- + + + + + - - - - - -
+ + + + + - - - - -

-
VD

-
V < VD
+ -
- - - - - -

• If a voltage source is connected to a pn-junction with the positive terminal connected

on the p-region and the negative on the n-region then the junction is forward biased.
• In this case the positive terminal of the source push the holes of the p-region towards
the n-region, while the negative terminal push the electrons towards the p-region.
• This reduces the width of the depletion layer. If the source voltage is less than the
depletion voltage, then the width of the depletion layer is only reduced, not
eliminated. Thus, only a very small current flows through the circuit.

AELE237 Semiconductor Materials 41

 Biasing the pn-junction:- Forward Bias (V >= VD)

+ + + + - - - - p-type n-type
- - - - + + + + Rp + - Rn
p-type n-type
- - - - - + -
+ + +

-
+ + + + - - - -

-
-
VD

-
-
V >= V D

-
- - - - - + - - - - - - + -

• If the source voltage is greater than the depletion voltage, then the depletion layer is
eliminated, and a large number of electrons gain enough energy to become valance
electrons. Thus a large current flows through the pn-junction.
• In this case the pn-junction behaves like a resistance (Rp + Rn) with a voltage
source (VD).
• The bulk resistance (Rp + Rn) is very low (few ohms), thus to avoid damaging the
pn-junction, a liming resistor is usually connected in series.
• The depletion voltage for silicon pn-junctions is 0.7V and for germanium 0.3V.

AELE237 Semiconductor Materials 42

 Biasing the pn-junction:- Reverse Bias
Depletion
Layer
+ + + - - + + - - -
+ + + - - + + - - -
+ p-type - + n-type -
+ + + - - + + - - -
+ + + - - + + - - -

-
VD

-
- +
- -

• If the source voltage is connected in such a way so that the negative terminal is connected on
the p-region and the positive on the n-region, then the pn-junction is reversed biased.
• In this case the source voltage widens the depletion layer. Only a very small currents flows the
circuit due to the small number of minority curriers in the pn-junction.
• If the source voltage increases further, then the depletion layer widens more, creating a gap
between the p-region and the n-region, that behaves as a capacitance.
• Further increase in the source voltage will lead to a state known as the avalanche
breakdown, where a large reverse current flows through the circuit.

AELE237 Semiconductor Materials 43

 The PN-Junction Diode

• A pn junction is formed by connecting a p-type semiconductor with an n-type

semiconductor.
• Initially, at the point of contact, the free electrons of the n-type region recombine
with the holes of the p-type region.
• Due to the force of attraction between the electrons and holes, some electrons move
to the p-region while some holes move to the n-region.
• At some point the force on the electrons that moved in the p-region is the same as
the force due to the holes that moved in the n-region, thus these electrons are
trapped in the p-region.
• The same applies to the holes that moved in the n-region.
• This creates a barrier between the two regions, called the Depletion Layer.
Depletion
Layer
+ + + + + - - + + - - - - -
+ + + + + - - + + - - - - -
Symbol Terminal Identification
+ p-type - - + + n-type -
+ + + + + - - + + - - - - - Anode Cathode Anode Cathode
+ + + + + - - + + - - - - -

VD
AELE237 Semiconductor Materials 44
 Biasing the Junction Diode:- Forward Bias (V < VD)
• If a voltage source is connected to a pn- Depletion
Layer
junction with the positive terminal + + + + + - - - - -
connected on the p-region and the + + + + + - - - - -
+ p-type + - n-type -
negative on the n-region then the - + + + + + - - - - - -
junction is forward biased. + + + + + - - - - -

• In this case the positive terminal of the

-
VD

-
source pushes the holes of the p-region
V < VD
towards the n-region, while the negative - - - + -
- - -
terminal pushes the electrons towards
the p-region.
I (mA)
• This reduces the width of the depletion
layer. If the source voltage is less than
the depletion voltage, then the width of
the depletion layer is only reduced, not
eliminated. Thus, only a very small
current flows through the circuit.
V (V)

AELE237 Semiconductor Materials 45

 IV Characteristic of PN Junction

VD
I D  I S (exp  1)
VT

• The current and voltage relationship of a PN junction

is exponential in forward bias region, and relatively
constant in reverse bias region.
CH2 Basic Physics of 46
 Diode Equation

AELE237 Semiconductor Materials 47

 Biasing the Junction Diode:- Forward Bias (V >= VD)

+ + + + - - - - p-type n-type
- - - - + + + + Rp + - Rn
p-type n-type
- - - - - + -
+ + +

-
+ + + + - - - -

-
-
VD

-
-
V >= V D

-
- - - - - + - - - - - - + -

• If the source voltage is greater than the depletion voltage, then the depletion layer is
eliminated, and a large number of electrons gain enough energy to become valance
electrons. Thus a large current flows through the pn-junction.
• In this case the pn-junction behaves like a resistance (Rp + Rn) with a voltage
source (VD).
• The bulk resistance (Rp + Rn) is very low (few ohms), thus to avoid damaging the
pn-junction, a liming resistor is usually connected in series.
• The depletion voltage for silicon pn-junctions is 0.7V and for germanium 0.3V.

AELE237 Semiconductor Materials 48

 Junction Diode Forward Characteristics
• Ideal Junction Diode: (Assume that the internal resistance of the diode is zero)
– Silicon diode: if V<0.7V then I = 0. if V>0.7V then I = ∞. For germanium V=0.3V.
I (mA)
VD
0.7V

V (V)

0.7V

• Non-ideal Junction Diode:

– Need to consider the internal resistance of the pn-junction
I (mA)
rD
VD
0.7V

V (V)
0.7V

AELE237 Semiconductor Materials 49

 Biasing the pn-junction:- Reverse Bias
Depletion I (mA)
Layer
+ + + - - + + - - -
+ + + - - + + - - -
+ p-type - + n-type -
+ + + - - + + - - -
+ + + - - + + - - -
V (V)

-
VD
-

- +
- -

• If the source voltage is connected in such a way so that the negative terminal is
connected on the p-region and the positive on the n-region, then the pn-junction is
reversed biased.
• In this case the source voltage widens the depletion layer. Only a very small currents
flow in the circuit due to the small number of minority curriers in the pn-junction.
• If the source voltage increases further, then the depletion layer widens more,
creating a gap between the p-region and the n-region, that behaves as a
capacitance.
• Further increase in the source voltage will lead to a state known as the avalanche
breakdown, where a large reverse current flows through the circuit.

AELE237 Semiconductor Materials 50

 Zener vs. Avalanche Breakdown

• Zener breakdown is a result of the large electric field

inside the depletion region that breaks electrons or
holes off their covalent bonds.
• Avalanche breakdown is a result of electrons or holes
colliding with the fixed ions inside the depletion
region.
CH2 Basic Physics of Semiconductors 51
 Avalanche BreakDown
• The minority carriers under reverse biased conditions flowing through the junction
acquire a kinetic energy which increases with increase in reverse voltage .
• At a sufficiently high reverse voltage(5 V) or more the kinetic energy of the minority
carriers become so large that they knock out electrons from covalent bonds of
semiconductor material
• As a result, the liberated electrons in turn liberate more electrons and the current
becomes very large leading to break down of the crystal structure itself.
• The breakdown region is the knee of the characteristic curve.
• The current is not controlled by the junction voltage but rather by the external circuit
• Junction that experience breakdown above 5v are usually avalanche effect.

52
 Zener Breakdown
• Under high reverse voltage ,the depletion region expands and the potential barrier
increases leading to a very high electric field across the junction.
• The electric field will break some of the covalent bonds of the semiconductor atom
leading to a large number of free minority carriers which suddenly increase the
reverse current.
• This is called zener effect.
• The break down occurs at a particular and constant value of reverse voltage called
break down voltage
• Occurs at electric field intensity of 3x10^7 V/m
• Diode break down below 5v are caused by zener effect.

53
 Zener and Avalanche breakdown

AELE237 Semiconductor Materials 54