Realization of Electronic Proportional (P) controller

e P Controller m
Error Controller
output

e Kp m

R1 R3

R2
e _ -m R3 _
m
+ +

Inverter

© Anjan Rakshit and Amitava Chatterjee

Realization of Electronic Proportional (P) controller

e P Controller m
Error Controller
output


e Kp m

R1 R3

R2
e _ -m R3 _
m
+ +

Inverter
Realization of Electronic Proportional (P) controller

e P Controller m
Error Controller
output


e Kp m

R1 R3

R2
e _ -m R3 _
m
+ +

Inverter
Realization of Electronic Proportional (P) controller

e P Controller m
Error Controller
output


e Kp m

R1 R3

R2
e _ -m R3 _
m
+ +

Inverter

The controller output may be expressed as:

m = Kp .e
where Kp = R1/R2
and P = % proportional band = 100 / Kp
 Realization of Electronic PID controller
(P, PI, & PD are special cases of PID)
The controller output may be expressed as:

 1 t de 
m  K p  e  0 edt  TD 
 Ti dt 
where Ti = integral time constant
TD = derivative time constant
 Realization of Electronic PID controller
(P, PI, & PD are special cases of PID)
The controller output may be expressed as:

 1 t de 
m  K p  e  0 edt  TD 
 Ti dt 
where Ti = integral time constant
TD = derivative time constant

Kp de
m  K p e   edt  K pTD
t
Or,
0
Ti dt
Taking Laplace transform with zero initial conditions,

K p E s 
M  s   K p E s    sK pTD E s 
sTi
 Taking Laplace transform with zero initial conditions,

K p E s 
M  s   K p E s    sK pTD E s 
sTi
M s  Kp
 Kp   sK pTD
E s 
Or,
sTi
 Taking Laplace transform with zero initial conditions,

K p E s 
M  s   K p E s    sK pTD E s 
sTi
M s  Kp
 Kp   sK pTD
E s 
Or,
sTi

M s   1 
 K p 1   sTD 
E s 
Or,

 sTi 
the transfer function of PID controller
 Parallel Realization of PID Controller

Kp
proportional term

E(s) Kp / sTi + M(s)

integral term

s Kp TD

derivative term
 Circuit realization
R1

R2
_ v1 R3
+ R3
proportional term
CI
_
e m
RI +
_ v2 R3
+
integral term
Inverting adder
RD
CD
_ v3 R3
+
derivative term
 Circuit realization
R1

R2
_ v1 R3
+ R3
proportional term
CI
_
e m
RI +
_ v2 R3
+
integral term
Inverting adder
RD
CD
_ v3 R3
+
derivative term

M s   V1 s   V2 s   V3 s 
 Circuit realization
R1

R2
_ v1 R3
+ R3
proportional term
CI
_
e m
RI +
_ v2 R3
+
integral term
Inverting adder
RD
CD
_ v3 R3
+
derivative term

M s   V1 s   V2 s   V3 s 
 R1 1 
Or, M s   E s    sRD CD 
 R2 sRI CI 
 Circuit realization

Therefore, transfer function of PID controller becomes

M s   R1 1 
   sRD CD 
E s   R2 sRI CI 
Here,
R1
Kp 
R2
Kp 1

Ti RI C I
K pTD  RD C D
 Circuit realization

Proportional and integral terms may be combined as:

R1 CI
R3
R2
e _ v1 R3 _
0V + m
+

From Derivative R3
ckt.

E s  V1 s 
 0
R2 1
R1 
sC I
 Circuit realization

Proportional and integral terms may be combined as:

R1 CI
R3
R2
e _ v1 R3 _
0V + m
+

From Derivative R3
ckt.

E s  V1 s 
 0
R2 1
R1 
sC I
E s  V1 s  V1 s sC I
Or,  
R2 R1 
1 1  sR1C I
sC I
 Circuit realization

V1 s  1  sR1C I

E s 
Or,
sR2 C I
 R1 1 
 
 R  sR C  
 2 2 I 

R1  1 
 
 1 
R2  sR1C I 
 1 

  K p 1  

 sTi 
 Circuit realization

V1 s  1  sR1C I

E s 
Or,
sR2 C I
 R1 1 
 
 R  sR C  
 2 2 I 

R1  1 
 
 1 
R2  sR1C I 
 1 

  K p 1  

 sTi 
 Circuit realization

V1 s  1  sR1C I

E s 
Or,
sR2 C I
 R1 1 
 
 R  sR C  
 2 2 I 

R1  1 
 
 1 
R2  sR1C I 
 1 

  K p 1  

 sTi 
 Circuit realization

V1 s  1  sR1C I

E s 
Or,
sR2 C I
 R1 1 
 
 R  sR C  
 2 2 I 

R1  1 
 
 1 
R2  sR1C I 
 1 

  K p 1  

 sT i 

Where
R1
Kp  and Ti  R1CI
R2
 A simple PID Controller with two op-amps

e +
_ m
e e +
R1 _ m
equivalent
e
CI circuit CI
RD _ RD
m
CD m +
CD +
_ m
RI Unity R2 RI
gain
buffer
R2
Here, 
RI  R2
 A simple PID Controller with two op-amps

e +
_ m
e e +
R1 _ m
equivalent
e
CI circuit CI
RD _ RD
m
CD m +
CD +
_ m
RI Unity R2 RI
gain
buffer
R2
Here, 
RI  R2
 A simple PID Controller with two op-amps

e +
_ m
e e +
R1 _ m
equivalent
e
CI circuit CI
RD _ RD
m
CD m +
CD +
_ m
RI Unity R2 RI
gain
buffer
R2
Here, 
RI  R2
The unity gain buffer amplifier is required to avoid the loading effect of
the feedback network
 Circuit solution

e +
_ m
e

RD CI

CD +
RI
I1 _ m
I2
 Circuit solution

 1 
M s   I  R
e +
e _ m Loop equations:
1 I
   I 2 RI
RD CI  sC I 
CD
RI
+
_ m  1 
I2 I1 0   I1 RI  I 2  RI  RD  
 sC D 
 Circuit solution

 1 
M s   I  R
e +
e _ m Loop equations:
1 I
   I 2 RI
RD CI  sC I 
CD
RI
+
_ m  1 
I2 I1 0   I1 RI  I 2  RI  RD  
 sC D 

In matrix form:
 1 
R 
 I sC  RI   I1    M  s  
 I
    
 1   = 
  RI RI  RD    I 2   0 
 sC D
 
 Circuit solution
1
e + RI   M s
e _ m By Cramer’s rule: sCI
CI  RI 0
RD
I2 
 1 
CD + R
 sC  R 
_ m
RI I I
I2 I1
 I

 1 

 I R R  R 
sCD 
I D

 Circuit solution
1
e + RI   M s
e _ m By Cramer’s rule: sCI
CI  RI 0
RD
I2 
 1 
CD + R
 sC  R 
_ m
RI I I
I2 I1
 I

 1 

 I R R  R 
sCD 
I D


 M  s  RI
Or, I2 
 1  1 
 I
R   I
R  RD    RI
2

 sC I  sC D 
 Circuit solution
1
e + RI   M s
e _ m By Cramer’s rule: sCI
CI  RI 0
RD
I2 
 1 
CD + R
 sC  R 
_ m
RI I I
I2 I1
 I

 1 

 I R R  R 
sCD 
I D


 M  s  RI
Or, I2 
 1  1 
 I
R   I
R  RD    RI
2

 sC I  sC D 

 M  s  RI
 E s 
I2

 sCD 
sCD  1  1  2
 I
R   I
R  RD    RI
 sCI  sCD 
 Circuit solution
Then, the T.F. becomes:
e +
_ m
e
  1  1  2  
RD CI
  RI   RI  RD    RI  sCD 
M  s  1   sCI  sCD   
CD +   
RI _ m E s  RI
 
I2 I1

 
 Circuit solution
Then, the T.F. becomes:
e +
_ m
e
  1  1  2  
RD CI
  RI   RI  RD    RI  sCD 
M  s  1   sCI  sCD   
CD + 
RI _ m E s   RI 
 
I2 I1

 
1 1  s T1  T2  RI CD   s TT 
2
Simplifying,   1 2

  1  1 sT 1  2  
  RI   RI  RD    RI  sCD 
M  s  1 1  T1  TsCI RI CD  1 sCD   
    2

 R  sT2 
E s    T  sT
 1 I 1  
 
where T1 = RICI and T2 = RDCD
 Circuit solution

e + T1  T2  RI CD
e _ m By substituting A
RD CI T1
CD +
RI _ m CD T2
I2 I1 Or, A  1 
CI T1
 Circuit solution

e + T1  T2  RI CD
e _ m By substituting A
RD CI T1
CD +
RI _ m CD T2
I2 I1 Or, A  1 
CI T1

This expression of A presents the problem of interaction and hence,

the controller developed is called an interacting controller.
 Circuit solution

e + T1  T2  RI CD
e _ m By substituting A
RD CI T1
CD +
RI _ m CD T2
I2 I1 Or, A  1 
CI T1

The T.F. becomes:

 A simplified PID Controller with one op-amp

e +
_ m
e e +
R1 _ m
equivalent
e
CI circuit CI
RD _ RD
Original circuit with two op-amps
m
CD m +
CD +
_ m
RI Unity R2 RI
gain
buffer

The unity gain buffer amplifier may be omitted if the resistances are chosen such that

R I
|| RD   R1 || R2 
 A simplified PID Controller with one op-amp

e +
_ m
e e +
R1 _ m
equivalent
e
CI circuit CI
RD _ RD
Original circuit with two op-amps
m
CD m +
CD +
_ m
RI Unity R2 RI
gain
buffer

The unity gain buffer amplifier may be omitted if the resistances are chosen such that

R I
|| RD   R1 || R2 
e +
_ m

CI R1 + R 2
TD
adjust Final circuit with one op-amp
CD RD m adjust
RI
Ti
adjust
Desirable features of a Process Controller

 Provision for providing a bias term

Desirable features of a Process Controller

 Provision for providing a bias term

 Provision for anti derivative kick

Desirable features of a Process Controller

 Provision for providing a bias term

 Provision for anti derivative kick

 Provision for anti-integral wind-up

Desirable features of a Process Controller

 Provision for providing a bias term

 Provision for anti derivative kick

 Provision for anti-integral wind-up

 Output must be limited (saturation)

Desirable features of a Process Controller

 Provision for providing a bias term

 Provision for anti derivative kick

 Provision for anti-integral wind-up

 Output must be limited (saturation)

 Provision for Auto/Manual modes of control

Desirable features of a Process Controller

 Provision for providing a bias term

 Provision for anti derivative kick

 Provision for anti-integral wind-up

 Output must be limited (saturation)

 Provision for Auto/Manual modes of control

 Provision for Local/Remote modes of operation

 Provision for providing a bias term

 1 t de 
The controller output is m  K p  e  0 edt  TD   bias
 Ti dt 
 Provision for providing a bias term

 1 t de 
The controller output is m  K p  e  0 edt  TD   bias
 Ti dt 
Bias may be properly adjusted for zero steady state error with P and PD
controllers, when load is constant. Proper bias can also ensure efficient
operation under start-up condition.
 Provision for providing a bias term

 1 t de 
The controller output is m  K p  e  0 edt  TD   bias
 Ti dt 
Bias may be properly adjusted for zero steady state error with P and PD
controllers, when load is constant. Proper bias can also ensure efficient
operation under start-up condition.

Non-zero steady state error

P-control without bias

 Provision for providing a bias term

 1 t de 
The controller output is m  K p  e  0 edt  TD   bias
 Ti dt 
Bias may be properly adjusted for zero steady state error with P and PD
controllers, when load is constant. Proper bias can also ensure efficient
operation under start-up condition.

P-control without bias P-control with bias

 Provision for anti-derivative kick

Derivative action may produce an unwanted kick at the controller output

when there is a step change in the set-point. This effect may be
eliminated if the derivative term is computed from the measured variable,
instead of the error (anti-derivative kick feature).
 Provision for anti-derivative kick

Derivative action may produce an unwanted kick at the controller output

when there is a step change in the set-point. This effect may be
eliminated if the derivative term is computed from the measured variable,
instead of the error (anti-derivative kick feature).

PD-control with derivative kick

 Provision for anti-derivative kick

Derivative action may produce an unwanted kick at the controller output

when there is a step change in the set-point. This effect may be
eliminated if the derivative term is computed from the measured variable,
instead of the error (anti-derivative kick feature).

PD-control with derivative kick PD-control with anti-derivative kick

 Provision for anti-integral wind-up

Integral action in PI and PID controllers may produce a large integral

error term when a non-zero error persists for a long time. Integration
action may be switched off to combat this situation, otherwise, a long
time may be required to come back to normal working range.
 Provision for anti-integral wind-up

Integral action in PI and PID controllers may produce a large integral

error term when a non-zero error persists for a long time. Integration
action may be switched off to combat this situation, otherwise, a long
time may be required to come back to normal working range.

In some controllers, when the integral term is present, the integral

amount during Ti is summed with each pass through the calculation and
becomes the controller bias. This technique is known as automatic reset
and this is done to avoid long duration operation of the integral action –
thus error due to drift etc. during integration may be avoided.
 Output must be limited (saturation)

It is desirable to limit the controller output (say between 0% and 100%) so

that control valves or other final control elements may operate safely
within their working limits.
 Provision for Auto/Manual modes of control

A change-over switch is normally provided for configuring the controller

as an automatic controller (AUTO) for closed loop operation or as a
manual controller (MAN) for open-loop operation.
 Provision for Auto/Manual modes of control

A change-over switch is normally provided for configuring the controller

as an automatic controller (AUTO) for closed loop operation or as a
manual controller (MAN) for open-loop operation.

Manual command

MAN
Final
Error Controller control Actuating signal
AUTO element
Change-over
switch
 Provision for Local/Remote modes of operation

A provision is made for the set point input, such that, the set point may
be changed either locally or from a remote link.
 Electronic Process Controllers

Advantages

 No transmission lag (as compared to pneumatic systems)

 Electronic Process Controllers

Advantages

 No transmission lag (as compared to pneumatic systems)

 Absence of dead zone due to friction or hysteresis in moving parts

 Electronic Process Controllers

Advantages

 No transmission lag (as compared to pneumatic systems)

 Absence of dead zone due to friction or hysteresis in moving parts

 Capable of operating at low temperatures

 Electronic Process Controllers

Advantages

 No transmission lag (as compared to pneumatic systems)

 Absence of dead zone due to friction or hysteresis in moving parts

 Capable of operating at low temperatures

 Compatibility with other electrical components

 Electronic Process Controllers

Disadvantages

 Prone to electrical hazards (in inflammable atmosphere)

 Electronic Process Controllers

Disadvantages

 Prone to electrical hazards (in inflammable atmosphere)

 Analog integrators are not very reliable

 Electronic Process Controllers

Disadvantages

 Prone to electrical hazards (in inflammable atmosphere)

 Analog integrators are not very reliable

 Conversion equipments are necessary to interface pneumatic and hydraulic devices

Pneumatic Baffle-Nozzle or Flapper-Nozzle amplifier

Fulcrum

+ a nozzle Restriction (orifice)

Set point Constant pressure
x air supply (P s) (20 psi)
r
displacement b Baffle m
Error (or flapper) Output pressure (To control valve)
e (Nozzle back pressure)

+ +
Cm (joint)
Measured
variable
e = (r - C m)/2
Pneumatic Baffle-Nozzle or Flapper-Nozzle amplifier

Fulcrum

+ a nozzle Restriction (orifice)

Set point Constant pressure
x air supply (P s) (20 psi)
r
displacement b Baffle m
Error (or flapper) Output pressure (To control valve)
e (Nozzle back pressure)

+ +
Cm (joint)
Measured
variable
e = (r - C m)/2

Power source

Set point +
Output
Measured
variable
-
 Pneumatic Baffle-Nozzle or Flapper-Nozzle amplifier

M (Nozzle back pressure)

Fulcrum
Ps
+ a nozzle Restriction (orifice)
Set point Constant pressure Typical 15 psi approx. linear working
x air supply (P s) (20 psi) values range
r
displacement b Baffle 3 psi
m Pa
Error (or flapper) Output pressure (To control valve)
0 Baffle-Nozzle
e (Nozzle back pressure) X
0.001" 0.002" separation
+ +
Cm (joint) Typical
Measured values
variable A typical curve relating nozzle back pressure M to Baffle-Nozzle separation X
e = ( r - C m)/2

x: change in baffle-nozzle separation.

m: change in back pressure.
Pa : the lowest possible pressure ( = ambient pressure).
Pneumatic Baffle-Nozzle or Flapper-Nozzle amplifier

M (Nozzle back pressure)

Ps

Typical 15 psi approx. linear working

values range
3 psi
Pa
0 Baffle-Nozzle
0.001" 0.002"
X
separation

Typical
values
A typical curve relating nozzle back pressure M to Baffle-Nozzle separation X
 Pneumatic Baffle-Nozzle or Flapper-Nozzle amplifier

Fulcrum

+ a nozzle Restriction (orifice)

Set point Constant pressure
x air supply (P s) (20 psi)
r
displacement b Baffle m
Error (or flapper) Output pressure (To control valve)
e (Nozzle back pressure)

+ +
Cm (joint)
Measured
variable
e = (r - C m)/2

Under steady state condition, change in output pressure may be expressed as:

m   K n  x, where –Kn is the nozzle gain

 a 
Here, x e
a b
 Pneumatic Baffle-Nozzle or Flapper-Nozzle amplifier

Fulcrum

+ a nozzle Restriction (orifice)

Set point Constant pressure
x air supply (P s) (20 psi)
r
displacement b Baffle m
Error (or flapper) Output pressure (To control valve)
e (Nozzle back pressure)

+ +
Cm (joint)
Measured
variable
e = (r - C m)/2

Under steady state condition, change in output pressure may be expressed as:

m   K n  x, where –Kn is the nozzle gain

 a 
Here, x e
a b
 a   a 
Thus, m  K n  e   K e , K is called the amplifier gain and K  Kn  
 a  b   a  b 
Arrangement for mechanical set-point
and pneumatic measured variable

set point
(Screw)

e
Bellows
pneumatic
measured
variable C m
Arrangement for mechanical set-point
and pneumatic measured variable

set point
(Screw)

e
Bellows
pneumatic
measured
variable C m

Bellows
 Relay valve or pilot valve

The output pressure from the pneumatic amplifier is not suitable for driving the final
control element due to the presence of restriction in the air supply.
 Relay valve or pilot valve

The output pressure from the pneumatic amplifier is not suitable for driving the final
control element due to the presence of restriction in the air supply.

For this reason, a buffer stage, known as relay valve or pilot valve, is added at the
output to allow sufficient air flow at pressure ‘m’.
 Relay valve or pilot valve

The output pressure from the pneumatic amplifier is not suitable for driving the final
control element due to the presence of restriction in the air supply.

For this reason, a buffer stage, known as relay valve or pilot valve, is added at the
output to allow sufficient air flow at pressure ‘m’.

A relay valve may be direct-acting (positive gain) or reverse-acting (negative gain).

 Direct-acting relay valve with a Baffle-Nozzle amplifier

x Restriction
m Air supply (P s)
Vent

Relay valve (gain = 1)

e
Bellows
Relay Relay output

m
m = - K n.x

As the nozzle back pressure m increases, the relay output pressure also increases
 Direct-acting relays

Bleed type relay

In all positions of the valve, except at the
position to shut off the air supply, air
continues to bleed into the atmosphere.
 Direct-acting relays

Bleed type relay

In all positions of the valve, except at the
position to shut off the air supply, air
continues to bleed into the atmosphere.
 Direct-acting relays

Bleed type relay Non-bleed type relay

The air bleed stops when the equilibrium
condition is obtained, and, therefore, there is
no loss of pressurized air at steady-state
operation.
 Reverse-acting relay

As the nozzle back pressure increases, the ball valve is forced towards the lower seat, thereby
decreasing the output pressure
 Pneumatic Proportional Controller

Feedback bellows

m m (Controller
output pressure)
(3 - 15 psi)
a

air supply (P s)
b Restriction (20 psi)
x
e
Error
 Pneumatic Proportional Controller

Feedback bellows

m m (Controller
output pressure)
(3 - 15 psi)
a

air supply (P s)
b Restriction (20 psi)
x
e
Error

The Baffle-Nozzle separation may be expressed as:

 a   b 
  x   e   Kb m
 ab   ab 
where Kb is the bellows stiffness factor and m is the change in output pressure.
 Pneumatic Proportional Controller
Feedback bellows

 a   b 
m m (Controller
  x   e   Kb m
 ab   ab 
output pressure)
(3 - 15 psi)
a

air supply (P s)
Now m = – Kn .x, where Kn is the nozzle
b
x Restriction (20 psi) gain.
e
Error
 Pneumatic Proportional Controller
Feedback bellows

 a   b 
m m (Controller
  x   e   Kb m
 ab   ab 
output pressure)
(3 - 15 psi)
a

air supply (P s)
Now m = – Kn .x, where Kn is the nozzle
b
x Restriction (20 psi) gain.
e
Error

Block diagram of the controller

a ++ -X(s)
E(s) Kn M(s)
a+b -
b
Kb
a+b
 Pneumatic Proportional Controller
Feedback bellows

 a   b 
m m (Controller
  x   e   Kb m
 ab   ab 
output pressure)
(3 - 15 psi)
a

air supply (P s)
Now m = – Kn .x, where Kn is the nozzle
b
x Restriction (20 psi) gain.
e
Error

Thus,  a   b 
m  e
K n  a  b   a  b  b
Km
 Pneumatic Proportional Controller
Feedback bellows

 a   b 
m m (Controller
  x   e   Kb m
 ab   ab 
output pressure)
(3 - 15 psi)
a

air supply (P s)
Now m = – Kn .x, where Kn is the nozzle
b
x Restriction (20 psi) gain.
e
Error

Thus,  a   b 
m  e
K n  a  b   a  b  b
Km

1  b    a 
or m   Kb    e
 Kn  ab    a b 
 Pneumatic Proportional Controller
Feedback bellows

 a   b 
m m (Controller
  x   e   Kb m
 ab   ab 
output pressure)
(3 - 15 psi)
a

air supply (P s)
Now m = – Kn .x, where Kn is the nozzle
b
x Restriction (20 psi) gain.
e
Error

Thus,  a   b 
m  e
K n  a  b   a  b  b
Km

1  b    a 
or m   Kb    e
 Kn  ab    a b 
1
if Kn is very high, then  0,
Kn
 Pneumatic Proportional Controller
Feedback bellows

m m (Controller
output pressure)
(3 - 15 psi)
a

air supply (P s)
b Restriction (20 psi)
x
e
Error

This gives
 a 
   a 
 ab
m e  e  K p .e
 b   bKb 
  Kb
 ab
a
where Kp = proportional gain =
bK b
 Pneumatic Proportional Controller
Feedback bellows

 a 
m m (Controller
   a 
 ab
output pressure)

m e  e  K p .e
(3 - 15 psi)
a
 b   bKb 
air supply (P s)
  b
K
b
x Restriction (20 psi)
 ab
e a
Error where Kp = proportional gain =
bK b

Simplified block diagram of the controller

E(s) Kp M(s)
Pneumatic proportional controller with a direct-acting relay

Feedback bellows
Controller output
m m
(3 - 15 psi)

a
m Relay valve (gain = 1)

Air supply (Ps)

b x Restriction (20 psi)
e
Error
 Pneumatic Proportional-Derivative Controller
Derivative time
Feedback bellows
Restriction R D (Needle valve)

CD m
(output pressure)

a Baffle

Nozzle Restriction (orifice)

air supply (P s)
b R
x
e
Error
 Pneumatic Proportional-Derivative Controller
Derivative time
Feedback bellows
Restriction R D (Needle valve)

CD m
(output pressure)

a Baffle

Nozzle Restriction (orifice)

air supply (P s)
b R
x
e
Error

The Baffle-Nozzle separation may be expressed as:

 a   b   Kb 
X s    E s     M s (assuming RD >> R)
 ab   a  b   1  sTD 
where Kb = Bellows stiffness factor,
TD = Derivative time
= RDCD, (assuming RD >> R),
CD = Capacity of the bellows.
 Pneumatic Proportional-Derivative Controller

Derivative time
Feedback bellows
Restriction R D (Needle valve)

 a   b   Kb 
CD m X s      
E s    M s
 ab   a  b   1  sTD 
(output pressure)

a Baffle

M  s    K n  X s 
Nozzle Restriction (orifice)
air supply (P s)
Now
b R
x
e where Kn is the nozzle gain.
Error
 Pneumatic Proportional-Derivative Controller

Derivative time
Feedback bellows
Restriction R D (Needle valve)

 a   b   Kb 
CD m X s      
E s    M s
 ab   a  b   1  sTD 
(output pressure)

a Baffle

M  s    K n  X s 
Nozzle Restriction (orifice)
air supply (P s)
Now
b R
x
e where Kn is the nozzle gain.
Error

M s  a   b   Kb 
Thus   E s     M s
Kn  a  b   a  b  1  sTD 
 Pneumatic Proportional-Derivative Controller

Derivative time
Feedback bellows
Restriction R D (Needle valve)

 a   b   Kb 
CD m X s      
E s    M s
 ab   a  b   1  sTD 
(output pressure)

a Baffle

M  s    K n  X s 
Nozzle Restriction (orifice)
air supply (P s)
Now
b R
x
e where Kn is the nozzle gain.
Error

M s  a   b   Kb 
Thus   E s     M s
Kn  a  b   a  b  1  sTD 

 1  b   Kb    a 
or, M s        E s
 K n  a  b   1  sTD    a  b 
 Pneumatic Proportional-Derivative Controller

Derivative time
Feedback bellows
Restriction R D (Needle valve)

 a   b   Kb 
CD m X s      
E s    M s
 ab   a  b   1  sTD 
(output pressure)

a Baffle

M  s    K n  X s 
Nozzle Restriction (orifice)
air supply (P s)
Now
b R
x
e where Kn is the nozzle gain.
Error

M s  a   b   Kb 
Thus   E s     M s
Kn  a  b   a  b  1  sTD 

 1  b   Kb    a  1
or, M s        E s Now, K n  1,  0,
 K n  a  b   1  sTD    a  b  Kn
 Pneumatic Proportional-Derivative Controller

Derivative time
Feedback bellows
Restriction R D (Needle valve)

 a   b   Kb 
CD m X s      
E s    M s
 ab   a  b   1  sTD 
(output pressure)

a Baffle

M  s    K n  X s 
Nozzle Restriction (orifice)
air supply (P s)
Now
b R
x
e where Kn is the nozzle gain.
Error

M s  a   b   Kb 
Thus   E s     M s
Kn  a  b   a  b  1  sTD 

 1  b   Kb    a  1
or, M s        E s Now, K n  1,  0,
 K n  a  b   1  sTD    a  b  Kn

M s  a 
   1  sTD 
E s  bK b 
a
 K p 1  sTD  where Kp = proportional gain =
bK b
 Pneumatic Proportional-Integral Controller
Integral time
Restriction (Needle valve)

RI proportional
bellows
(output
CI m m
pressure)

a
Integral negative
positive bellows feedback
feedback Restriction (orifice)
air supply (P s)
e b x R

Error
 Pneumatic Proportional-Integral Controller
Integral time
Restriction (Needle valve)

RI proportional
bellows
(output
CI m m
pressure)

a
Integral negative
positive bellows feedback
feedback Restriction (orifice)
air supply (P s)
e b x R

Error

The Baffle-Nozzle separation may be expressed as: (assuming RI >> R and

same stiffness for both bellows)
 a   b   b   Kb 
X s    E  s     b
K M  s      M s
 a  b   a  b   a  b  1  sTi 

where Ti = Integral time

= RICI
and CI = Capacity of integral bellows
Kb = Bellows stiffness factor.
 Pneumatic Proportional-Integral Controller

Integral time
Restriction (Needle valve)

RI proportional
bellows

 a   b   b   Kb 
X s        M s
(output
CI m m
pressure)
 E s    K M s   
 ab   a b   a  b   1  sTi 
b
a
Integral negative
positive bellows feedback
feedback Restriction (orifice)
air supply (P s)
e b x R

Error

Hence,
 a   1  b 
X s      
E s  1    Kb M  s 
 ab  1  sTi   a  b 
 
 a   1  b 
  E s     Kb M  s 
 ab  1 1  a  b 
 sT 
 i 
 Pneumatic Proportional-Integral Controller

Integral time
Restriction (Needle valve)

RI proportional
bellows

 a   b   b   Kb 
X s        M s
(output
CI m m
pressure)
 E s    K M s   
 ab   a b   a  b   1  sTi 
b
a
Integral negative
positive bellows feedback
feedback Restriction (orifice)
air supply (P s)
e b x R

Error

Hence,
 a   1  b 
X s      
E s  1    Kb M  s 
 ab  1  sTi   a  b 
 
 a   1  b 
  E s     Kb M  s 
 ab  1 1  a  b 
 sT 
 i 
Now, M  s    Kn . X  s 
 Pneumatic Proportional-Integral Controller

 1  b 
Integral time
 a 
X s        Kb M  s 
Restriction (Needle valve)
E s  1  
RI proportional
 ab  1  sTi   a  b 
 
bellows
(output
CI m m
pressure)
 a   1  b 
  E s     Kb M  s 
a
Integral negative
positive
feedback
bellows feedback
Restriction (orifice)  ab  1 1  a  b 
air supply (P s)  sT 
e b x R  i 
Error
and M  s    Kn . X  s 
1
Thus, assuming Kn >> 1, i.e.  0,
Kn
 Pneumatic Proportional-Integral Controller

 1  b 
Integral time
 a 
X s        Kb M  s 
Restriction (Needle valve)
E s  1  
RI proportional
 ab  1  sTi   a  b 
 
bellows
(output
CI m m
pressure)
 a   1  b 
  E s     Kb M  s 
a
Integral negative
positive
feedback
bellows feedback
Restriction (orifice)  ab  1 1  a  b 
air supply (P s)  sT 
e b x R  i 
Error
and M  s    Kn . X  s 
1
Thus, assuming Kn >> 1, i.e.  0,
Kn

M s a  1   1  a
 1    K p 1   , where Kp 
E  s  bKb  sTi   sTi  bK b
Pneumatic Proportional-Integral-Derivative Controller
Integral time
Restriction

RI
1

CI CD

Derivative time
a RD Restriction
(output pressure)
m
x
Air supply (P s)
b R
e Restriction

Error
 Pneumatic Proportional-Integral-Derivative Controller
Integral time
Restriction

RI
1

CI CD

Derivative time
a RD Restriction
(output pressure)
m
x
Air supply (P s)
b R
e Restriction

Error

The Baffle-Nozzle separation may be expressed as: (assuming RI>>RD>> R)

 a   b  K b 
 X s     E s      M s 
 a  b   a  b  1  sTD 
 b  Kb 
 
  M s 
 a  b  1  sTi 1  sTD  
 a   bK b  1 1 
  E  s    
   M s 
a b  a  b  1  sTD  1  sTi 1  sTD  
 Pneumatic Proportional-Integral-Derivative Controller
Integral time
Restriction

 a   b  K b 
 X s     E s     M s 
RI
1

a b  a  b  1  sTD 
CI CD
 b  Kb 
   M s 
 a  b  1  sTi 1  sTD  
Derivative time
RD
 bK b  
a Restriction
 a  1 1
 E s     M s 
(output pressure)
  
 a  b  1  sTD  1  sTi 1  sTD  
m
x a b
Air supply (P s)
b R
e Restriction

Error

Now, 1 1 1  sTi  1
 
1  sTD 1  sTi 1  sTD  1  sTi 1  sTD 
 Pneumatic Proportional-Integral-Derivative Controller
Integral time
Restriction

 a   b  K b 
 X s     E s     M s 
RI
1

a b  a  b  1  sTD 
CI CD
 b  Kb 
   M s 
 a  b  1  sTi 1  sTD  
Derivative time
RD
 bK b  
a Restriction
 a  1 1
 E s     M s 
(output pressure)
  
 a  b  1  sTD  1  sTi 1  sTD  
m
x a b
Air supply (P s)
b R
e Restriction

Error

Now, 1 1 1  sTi  1
 
1  sTD 1  sTi 1  sTD  1  sTi 1  sTD 
sTi

1  sTi  sTD  s 2TiTD
1

1 TD
1   sTD
sTi Ti
 Pneumatic Proportional-Integral-Derivative Controller
Integral time
Restriction

 a   b  K b 
 X s     E s     M s 
RI
1

a b  a  b  1  sTD 
CI CD
 b  Kb 
   M s 
 a  b  1  sTi 1  sTD  
Derivative time
RD
 bK b  
a Restriction
 a  1 1
 E s     M s 
(output pressure)
  
 a  b  1  sTD  1  sTi 1  sTD  
m
x a b
Air supply (P s)
b R
e Restriction

Error

Therefore,
 
 
 a   bK b  1  M s 
 X s     E  s    
ab  a  b  1  1  TD  sT 
 sT T D 
 i i 
 Pneumatic Proportional-Integral-Derivative Controller
Integral time
Restriction

 a   b  K b 
 X s     E s     M s 
RI
1

a b  a  b  1  sTD 
CI CD
 b  Kb 
   M s 
 a  b  1  sTi 1  sTD  
Derivative time
RD
 bK b  
a Restriction
 a  1 1
 E s     M s 
(output pressure)
  
 a  b  1  sTD  1  sTi 1  sTD  
m
x a b
Air supply (P s)
b R
e Restriction

Error

Therefore,
 
 
 a   bK b  1  M s 
 X s     E  s    
ab  a  b  1  1  TD  sT 
 sT T D 
 i i 

M  s    K n  X s 
Now,
 Pneumatic Proportional-Integral-Derivative Controller
Integral time
Restriction

RI
1
 
 
 a   bK b 
CD

 X s     E s   
1  M s 
CI


ab 
 a  b  1 1 T 
Derivative time
  D
 sTD 
 
RD
a Restriction
(output pressure) sTi Ti
m
x

M  s    K n  X s 
Air supply (P s)
b R
Restriction
and
e

Error

Therefore,
 
 
M s   a   bK b  1  M s 
  E s    
Kn a b  a  b  1  TD  1  sT 
 D 
 Ti sTi 
 Pneumatic Proportional-Integral-Derivative Controller
Integral time
Restriction

RI
1
 
 
 a   bK b 
CD

 X s     E s   
1  M s 
CI


ab 
 a  b  1 1 T 
Derivative time
  D
 sTD 
 
RD
a Restriction
(output pressure) sTi Ti
m
x

M  s    K n  X s 
Air supply (P s)
b R
Restriction
and
e

Error

Therefore,
 
 
M s   a   bK b  1  M s 
  E s    
Kn a b  a  b  1  TD  1  sT 
 D 
 Ti sTi 
  
 1  bK  
 a 
or, M s    b
 1      E s 

 Kn  a  b  1  D 
T 1   ab
 T sT  sTD 
  i i 
 Pneumatic Proportional-Integral-Derivative Controller
Integral time
Restriction

RI
1

  
 1  bK  
CI CD

M s   b

1    a  E s 
a RD
Derivative time
 K n  a  b  1  TD  1  sT   a  b 
Restriction
  D 

(output pressure)

x
m
 Ti sTi
Air supply (P s)
b R
e Restriction

Error
 Pneumatic Proportional-Integral-Derivative Controller
Integral time
Restriction

RI
1

  
 1  bK  
CI CD

M s   b

1    a  E s 
a RD
Derivative time
 K n  a  b  1  TD  1  sT   a  b 
Restriction
  D 

(output pressure)

x
m
 Ti sTi
Air supply (P s)
R 1
K n  1, 0
b
e Restriction
as
Error Kn
 Pneumatic Proportional-Integral-Derivative Controller
Integral time
Restriction

RI
1

  
 1  bK  
CI CD

M s   b

1    a  E s 
a RD
Derivative time
 K n  a  b  1  TD  1  sT   a  b 
Restriction
  D 

(output pressure)

x
m
 Ti sTi
Air supply (P s)
R 1
K n  1, 0
b
e Restriction
as
Error Kn

Therefore,

M s   a   TD 1   TD 1 
   1    sTD   K p 1    sTD 
E s   bKb   Ti sTi   Ti sTi 
a
where Kp 
bK b
 Pneumatic Proportional-Integral-Derivative Controller
Integral time
Restriction

RI
1

CI CD

Derivative time
a RD Restriction
(output pressure)
m
x
Air supply (P s)
b R
e Restriction

Error

M s   a   TD 1   TD 1  a
   1    sTD   K p 1    sTD  where Kp 
E s   bKb   Ti sTi   Ti sTi  bK b
 Pneumatic Proportional-Integral-Derivative Controller
Integral time
Restriction

RI
1

CI CD

Derivative time
a RD Restriction
(output pressure)
m
x
Air supply (P s)
b R
e Restriction

Error

M s   a   TD 1   TD 1  a
   1    sTD   K p 1    sTD  where Kp 
E s   bKb   Ti sTi   Ti sTi  bK b
Here,
 TD 
  imposes an interaction between integral and derivative operations of the controller. If
 Ti  we choose Ti >> TD, the interaction reduces and the transfer function becomes

M s   1 
 K p 1   sTD 
E s 
the ideal relation of a PID controller.
 sTi 
 Pneumatic Proportional-Integral-Derivative Controller
Integral time
Restriction

RI
1

CI CD

Derivative time
a RD Restriction
(output pressure)
m
x
Air supply (P s)
b R
e Restriction

Error

The controller gain becomes infinite when Ti = TD, if derivative time

restriction is placed in position (1).