FCPS part 1

Physics Module
 Physics Module

Fayzan Ahmed
Medical Physicists/RPO
Liaquat National Hospital
HISTORY
 A little bit of history…
• Wilhelm Röntgen discovered X-rays on
8th Nov 1895
• Took first medical X-ray of wife’s hand
(22nd Dec 1895)
• Used to diagnose Eddie McCarthy’s
fractured left wrist on 3rd Feb 1896 (20
min exposure)
• Awarded first Nobel Prize in Physics in
1901 for his discovery of ‘Röntgen rays’
A little bit of history…
Thankfully, things improved!…
 What is diagnostic radiology?
Radiograph formation at a glance
• The underlying principle of the majority of diagnostic
radiological techniques is that X-rays display
differential attenuation in matter
– When the X-ray beam is targeted at a patient, the different
tissues in the body will remove a different number of X-
rays from the beam
• The resulting modified X-ray flux can then be
‘captured’ by some form of detector to produce a
latent image or radiation measurement
– Detection may be through film, phosphor screens, digital
detectors, etc
 X-ray Properties
• Electromagnetic photons of radiation
• Emitted with various energies & wavelengths not
detectable to the human senses
• Travel radially from their source (in straight lines) at
the speed of light
• Can travel in a vacuum
• Display differential attenuation by matter
• The shorter the wavelength, the higher the energy
and hence, more penetrating
• Can cause ionisation in matter
• Produce a ‘latent’ image on film/detector
The X-ray imaging system
• It converts
electrical
energy into
electromagne
tic energy

• Electrical
energy =
current and
EM energy =
X-rays

• This
conversion of
energy takes
place inside
the X-ray tube
Conventional design
 The X-ray tube
The mechanism of making X-rays
 Generating x-rays

Minimum components (inserts) req. for x-rays

production
 Generating x-rays
• X-rays are produced when
highly energetic electrons
interact with matter
• Require;
– An electron source (cathode)
– A target (anode) The x-ray tube insert
– Evacuated path to accelerate
across
– High voltage (20-150 kV) The generator
• However, most of the energy
is given off as heat, and x-
rays are thrown off in all
directions
– Require cooling and shielding The tube housing
 X-ray tubes – an overview

• The x-ray tube insert is where we make the x-rays used in x-ray
imaging systems
– Cathode, anode, glass/metal enclosure under vacuum
• The x-ray tube housing supports and shields the tube insert
• The x-ray generator supplies the power
• kV, mA and exposure time are selectable by the operator
• Xray emission is ISOTROPIC, exit of xrays is allowed through window
NAME THE COMPONENTS ?
3
2
1

6
4 8 7
5
THE X-RAY TUBE INSERT
 The cathode
• The negative electrode
– Composed of a filament (source of
electrons) and a focussing cup
– Often have two filaments for broad and fine
focus
• Filament heating current applied (approx.
10 V, 7 A)
• Process of thermionic emission releases
electrons from the surface of the
filament
– Heat up to ~2200°C
– ‘Free’ electrons in the metal gain enough
energy to overcome the binding potential
– Tungsten metal is ideal material
• Need to apply high voltage to move these
electrons across to the anode. Space
charge effect
X-ray tube design – dual focus
 Electron production in the X-ray tube
Applied voltage chosen to give
correct velocity to the electrons
kV

mA

- +

Filament Target
(heats up on prep.)
 Important terms

• Tube potential (KV)

– Applied to electrodes (cathode and anode), for
filament heating and anode +
• Filament current (Amperes)
– Applied to filament for thermionic emission
• Tube current (milli amp)
– Current due to motion of electrons from
cathode to anode
Important terms
• Higher
KV
• Low
Filament
current
(A)
• Higher
Tube
current
(mA)
Space charge effect
• Electron
cloud is
produced
near
filament.
• Higher KV
is required
to produce
higher mAs
Question
The cathode of the X-ray tube

a. Is commonly made of tungsten

b. Has a high melting point
c. Has a low resistance
d. Is positively charged in relation to the anode
e. Can exceed temperatures of 2200°C
The cathode of the X-ray tube

a. Is commonly made of tungsten TRUE

b. Has a high melting point TRUE
c. Has a low resistance FALSE
d. Is positively charged in relation to the anode
False
e. Can exceed temperatures of 2200°C TRUE
Question
Regarding the X-ray tube filament
a. Typically, it has a current of 4A
b. It has a typical power dissipation of 40W
c. There is a surrounding space charge of positive charge
that repels the electrons away from the cathode and
towards the anode
d. Tube filament current and tube current are the same
e. It is surrounded by a focusing cup
Regarding the X-ray tube filament
a. Typically, it has a current of 4A TRUE
b. It has a typical power dissipation of 40W TRUE
c. There is a surrounding space charge of positive charge
that repels the electrons away from the cathode and
towards the anode FALSE
d. Tube filament current and tube current are the same
FALSE
e. It is surrounded by a focusing cup TRUE
 The anode
• Metal target electrode, held at a large positive potential
difference relative to the cathode
• Electrons strike the anode and convert kinetic energy to
mostly heat, with relatively few x-rays released
– So to get an acceptable output from the tube, a lot of heat must
be generated that has to be dealt with
– Don’t want to blow the tube up!
• Limits are placed on exposure factors to avoid damage
• Choice of material important
– Alloys of 10% rhenium and 90% tungsten are resistant to
surface damage – good for general x-ray tubes
• Also other design features used to limit heat damage…
 Stationary or rotating?
• Simple x-ray tubes (e.g. dental) have
tungsten insert on a solid copper block
– Conducts heat away from focal spot
– Limited to low tube currents as heat
builds quickly
• Rotating anodes used for most diagnostic
applications
– Bevelled disc on a rotor assembly
– Spins 3,000-10,000 rpm
– Spread the heat out over a large area
– Allows greater loading and higher x-ray
output
– Tube does not energise until the disc is up
to speed
– Cooled via radiative emission transferring
heat to tube insert and surrounding oil
bath
 Stationary or rotating?
• Stationary anode:
used in mobile fluoroscopy, dental
radiology and ward radiography.
Consists of an anode fixed in
position with the electron beam
constantly streaming onto one small
area.

• Rotating anode: used in most

radiography.
Molybdenum stem, which is a poor
conductor of heat to prevent heat
transmission to the metal bearings
The anode
The rotating anode
 Anode angles
• The x-ray generating surface of the anode is angled (7-20⁰)
• Actual focal spot is the area of anode struck by electrons
• Apparent focal spot size is much smaller due to geometry
– Heat spread out over a large area without affecting resolution
 The focal spot
• Typical focal spot sizes are
– 0.15-0.3 mm for mammography
– 0.6-1.2 mm for general radiography
– 0.6 mm for fluoroscopy
– 0.6-1.0 mm for CT
 The anode heel effect
• Ideally, the X-ray beam would be uniform across whole image
• However, this is not the case due to the anode heel effect
– The steeper the target angle, the worse the effect
• The electrons penetrate a few micrometres below the surface
of the anode before generating X-rays
– Hence, the X-rays that are generated in the target may be attenuated
on their way out
• X-rays travelling towards the anode edge of the field (A) will
pass through more of the target before exiting the tube
– Hence, attenuation will be greater on this edge, and beam intensity
will be lower than on the Cathode side of the field (B)
– Roughening of the anode surface as the tube ages make this worse
• Generally not noticeable on most images
• Can be minimised by using greater focus-to-detector
distances, smaller fields and shallower target angles
The anode heel effect
 40inch FFD

14 x 17 inch film
Geometric unsharpness and the focal spot
• Spatial resolution is dependent upon :
– Geometrical unsharpness
– Motion unsharpness
– Absorption unsharpness
• Geometric unsharpness is related to the fact that we
cannot (and in fact do not want to) produce an ideal
point source of X-rays
– The focal spot of the X-ray tube has a finite size that results
in blurring across the edge of structures
– Can be reduced by using a smaller focal spot, decreasing
the object-film distance (OFD) or using a longer focus-to-
film distance (FFD)
Geometric unsharpness and the focal spot
• Spatial resolution is dependent upon :
– Geometrical unsharpness
– Motion unsharpness
– Absorption unsharpness
• Geometric unsharpness is related to the fact that we
cannot (and in fact do not want to) produce an ideal
point source of X-rays
– The focal spot of the X-ray tube has a finite size that results
in blurring across the edge of structures
– Can be reduced by using a smaller focal spot, decreasing
the object-film distance (OFD) or using a longer focus-to-
film distance (FFD)
 Geometric unsharpness –
The ideal point source
Ideal point source
of X-rays

FFD

Object

OFD Film/detector
 Geometric unsharpness –
A ‘real’ focal spot
Focal spot of finite
size, f

FFD

Object

OFD Film/detector
Penumbra
Geometric unsharpness and the focal spot

• So, to minimise geometric unsharpness

– The smallest focal spot should be used, especially if
magnification imaging is to be performed (but be careful
not to blow the tube!)
– The patient should be positioned as close to the detector
as possible (unless magnification imaging)
– Largest possible focus-to-detector distances to reduce
magnification and blurring (within practical limits!)
 Geometric unsharpness –
A ‘real’ focal spot
Focal spot of finite
size, f

FFD

Object

Film/detector