Blood Vessels and

Circulation
Function of the Circulatory System

 The blood vessels of the body form a network more complex than an
interstate highway system.
 The blood vessels carry blood to within two or three cell diameters of nearly
all the trillions of cells that make up the body.
 Blood flow through them is regulated, so that cells receive adequate
nutrients and so that waste products are removed. Blood vessels remain
functional, in most cases, in excess of 70 years, and when they are damaged,
they repair themselves.
Function of the Circulatory System

Blood vessels outside the heart are divided into two classes:
 Pulmonary Vessels - transport blood from the right ventricle of the heart
through the lungs and back to the left atrium
 Systemic Vessels - transport blood through all parts of the body, from the left
ventricle of the heart and back to the right atrium
Function of the Circulatory System

 Carries blood
 Exchanges nutrients, waste products, and gases with tissues.
 Transports substances
 Helps regulate blood pressure
 Directs blood flow to the tissues
General Features of Blood Vessel
Structure

The three main types of blood vessels are:

 Arteries
 Capillaries
 Veins
Arteries

 Arteries carry blood away from the heart; usually, the blood is oxygen-rich.
 Blood is pumped from the ventricles of the heart into large, elastic arteries,
which branch repeatedly to form progressively smaller arteries.
 As they become smaller, the artery walls undergo a gradual transition from
having more elastic tissue than smooth muscle to having more smooth muscle
than elastic tissue .
Arteries

The arteries are normally classified as:

Elastic arteries
Muscular arteries
Arterioles
Elastic Arteries

 Elastic arteries are the largest-diameter arteries and have

the thickest walls.
 Compared to other arteries, a greater proportion of their
walls is composed of elastic tissue, and a smaller proportion
is smooth muscle.
 Elastic arteries stretch when the ventricles of the heart
pump blood into them.
 The elastic recoil of these arteries prevents blood pressure
from falling rapidly and maintains blood flow while the
ventricles are relaxed.
Muscular Arteries

 The muscular arteries include medium-sized and small arteries.

 The walls of medium-sized arteries are relatively thick compared to their
diameter. Most of the wall’s thickness results from smooth muscle cells of the
tunica media.
 Medium-sized arteries are frequently called distributing arteries because the
smooth muscle tissue enables these vessels to control blood flow to different
body regions.
Muscular Arteries

 Contraction of the smooth muscle in blood vessels, called vasoconstriction

decreases blood vessel diameter and blood flow.
 Relaxation of the smooth muscle in blood vessels, called vasodilation,
increases blood vessel diameter and blood flow. Medium-sized arteries supply
blood to small arteries.
 Small arteries have about the same structure as the medium-sized arteries,
except for a smaller diameter and thinner walls. The smallest of the small
arteries have only three or four layers of smooth muscle in their walls.
Arterioles

 Arterioles transport
blood from small
arteries to capillaries.
 Arterioles are the
smallest arteries in
which the three tunics
can be identified; the
tunica media consists
of only one or two
layers of circular
smooth muscle cells.
 Small arteries and
arterioles are adapted
for vasodilation and
vasoconstriction.
Capillaries

 Is it at the capillaries where exchange occurs between the blood and the
tissue fluid.
 Blood flow through capillaries is regulated by smooth muscle cells called
precapillary sphincters located at the origin of the branches of the
capillaries
 Capillary walls consist of endothelium which is a layer of simple squamous
epithelium surrounded by delicate loose connective tissue.
Capillaries

 The thin walls of capillaries facilitate diffusion

between the capillaries and surrounding cells.
 Each capillary is 0.5–1 millimeter (mm) long.
 Capillaries branch without changing their
diameter, which is approximately the same as the
diameter of a red blood cell (7.5 μm).
Capillaries

 Red blood cells flow through most capillaries in single file and are frequently
folded as they pass through the smaller-diameter capillaries.
 As blood flows through capillaries, blood gives up O2 and nutrients to the
tissue spaces and takes up CO2 and other byproducts of metabolism.
 Capillary networks are more numerous and more extensive in the lungs and in
highly metabolic tissues, such as the liver, kidneys, skeletal muscle, and
cardiac muscle, than in other tissue types.
Veins

 Veins carry blood toward the heart; usually, the blood is

oxygen-poor.
 Compared to arteries, the walls of veins are thinner and
contain less elastic tissue and fewer smooth muscle cells .
 Starting at capillaries and proceeding toward the heart,
small diameter veins come together to form larger-
diameter veins, which are fewer in number.
 Veins increase in diameter and decrease in number as
they progress toward the heart, and their walls increase
in thickness.
Veins

 Veins may be classified as :

Venules
Small veins
Medium sized veins
Large veins
Venules

 Venules have a diameter slightly larger

than that of capillaries and are
composed of endothelium resting on a
delicate connective tissue layer.
 The structure of venules, except for
their diameter, is very similar to that of
capillaries.
Small veins

 Small veins are slightly larger in diameter

than venules.
 All three tunics are present in small veins.
 The tunica media contains a continuous
layer of smooth muscle cells, and the
connective tissue of the tunica adventitia
surrounds the tunica media
Medium sized veins

 Medium-sized veins collect blood from

small veins and deliver it to large
veins.
 The three thin but distinctive tunics
make up the wall of the medium-sized
and large veins.
Large veins

 All three tunics are

present.
 The tunica media is thin
but can regulate vessel
diameter because blood
pressure in the venous
system is low.
 The predominant layer is
the tunica adventitia.
Tunics

 Except in capillaries and venules, blood vessel

walls consist of three layers, or tunics
 From the inner to the outer wall, the tunics are :
 The tunica intima,
 The tunica media, and
 The tunica adventitia
Tunica Intima

 The tunica intima or innermost layer,

consists of an endothelium composed of
simple squamous epithelial cells, a
basement membrane, and a small amount
of connective tissue.
 In muscular arteries, the tunica intima also
contains a layer of thin elastic connective
tissue.
Tunica Media

 The tunica media, or middle layer, consists of smooth muscle cells arranged
circularly around the blood vessel.
 It also contains variable amounts of elastic and collagen fibers, depending on
the size and type of the vessel.
 In muscular arteries, a layer of elastic connective tissue forms the outer
margin of the tunica media.
Tunica Adventitia

 Thetunica adventitia is composed of

dense connective tissue adjacent to
the tunica media; the tissue becomes
loose connective tissue toward the
outer portion of the blood vessel wall.
Blood Vessels of the Pulmonary
Circulation

The pulmonary circulation is the

system of blood vessels that
carries blood from the right
ventricle of the heart to the lungs
and back to the left atrium of the
heart.
Blood Vessels of the Pulmonary
Circulation
 Pulmonary Trunk - Blood from the right ventricle is pumped into a short
vessel.
 The pulmonary trunk then branches into the right and left pulmonary
arteries, which extend to the right and left lungs, respectively.
 Right and Left Pulmonary Arteries - These arteries carry oxygen-poor blood to
the pulmonary capillaries in the lungs, where the blood takes up O2 and
releases CO2. Blood rich in O2 flows from the lungs to the left atrium
Blood Vessels of the Pulmonary
Circulation

 Pulmonary Veins - exit the lungs and

carry the oxygen-rich blood to the left
atrium.
Blood Flow Through the Circulatory
System
 Veins and venules return blood from the body to the right atrium. After
passing from the right atrium to the right ventricle, blood is pumped into the
pulmonary trunk. the pulmonary trunk divides into the right and left
pulmonary arteries, which carry oxygen-poor blood to the lungs. in the lung
capillaries, Co2 is given off, and the blood picks up o2. Blood, now rich in o2,
flows from each lung to the left atrium. Blood passes from the left atrium to
the left ventricle. the left ventricle then pumps the blood into the aorta,
which distributes the blood through its branches to all of the body. Blood
returns to the heart through the venous system, and the cycle continues.
 Blood Vessels of the Systemic
Circulation: Arteries
 The systemic circulation is the system of
blood vessels that carries blood from the left
ventricle of the heart to the tissues of the
body and back to the right atrium. Oxygen-rich
blood from the pulmonary veins passes from
the left atrium into the left ventricle and from
the left ventricle into the aorta. Arteries
distribute blood from the aorta to all portions
of the body.
 Blood Vessels of the Systemic
Circulation: Arteries

Aorta
 All arteries of the systemic circulation branch directly or indirectly from the
aorta.
 The aorta is usually considered in three parts:
 the ascending aorta
 the aortic arch, and
 the descending aorta
 the thoracic aorta
 the abdominal aorta
 Blood Vessels of the Systemic
Circulation: Arteries
 The ascending aorta is the part of the aorta that passes superiorly from the
left ventricle.
 The right and left coronary arteries arise from the base of the ascending
aorta and supply blood to the heart
 The aorta arches posteriorly and to the left as the aortic arch. Three major
arteries, which carry blood to the head and upper limbs, originate from the
aortic arch: the brachiocephalic artery, the left common carotid artery, and
the left subclavian artery
 Blood Vessels of the Systemic
Circulation: Arteries
 The descending aorta is the longest part of the
aorta. It extends through the thorax and abdomen
to the upper margin of the pelvis.
 The part of the descending aorta that extends through
the thorax to the diaphragm is called the thoracic
aorta.
 The part of the descending aorta that extends from the
diaphragm to the point at which it divides into the two
common iliac arteries is called the abdominal aorta.
 Blood Vessels of the Systemic
Circulation: Arteries
 Arterial Aneurysm - is a localized dilation of an artery that usually develops
in response to trauma or a congenital (existing at birth) weakness of the
artery wall.
Major Arteries
 Arteries of
the Head
and Trunk
 Arteries of
the Upper
Limbs
 Arteries of
the Lower
Limbs
Arteries of the Head and Neck
Arteries of the Head and Neck

 Brachiocephalic (brā ′ kē -ō -se-fal′ ik; vessel to the arm and head) artery. This
short artery branches at the level of the clavicle to form the right common
carotid (ka-rot′ id) artery
 Right Common Carotid (ka-rot′ id) artery – that transports blood to the right
side of the head and neck, and the right subclavian (sŭ b-klā ′ vē -an
 Right Subclavian (sŭ b-klā ′ vē -an; beneath the clavicle) artery, - that
transports blood to the right upper limb
 Left Common Carotid Artery - transports blood to the left side of the head
and neck
 Left Subclavian Artery - transports blood to the left upper limb.
Arteries of the Head and Neck

 Internal carotid arteries - The base of each internal carotid artery is slightly
dilated to form a carotid sinus
 Carotid Sinus – that contains structures important in monitoring blood
pressure (baroreceptors)
 The external carotid arteries - have several branches that supply the
structures of the neck, face, nose, and mouth.
 Cerebral Arterial Circle - The vessels that supply blood to most of the brain
branch from the cerebral arterial circle.
 Vertebral (ver′ tĕ-brăl) Arteries - Branches of the vertebral arteries supply
blood to the spinal cord, as well as to the vertebrae, muscles, and ligaments
in the neck.
Arteries of the Head and Neck

 Basilar (bas′ i-lăr; relating to the base of the brain) Artery

- gives off branches that supply blood to the pons,
cerebellum, and midbrain. It also forms right and left
branches that contribute to the cerebral arterial circle.
 Most of the blood supply to the brain is through the
internal carotid arteries; however, not enough blood is
supplied to the brain to maintain life if either the
vertebral arteries or the carotid arteries are blocked.
Major Arteries of the Head and Thorax
 Cerebral
Arterial Circle
Arteries of the upper limbs
Arteries of the upper limbs

 The subclavian artery, located deep to the clavicle, becomes

the Axillary (ak′ sil-ār-ē) Artery in the axilla (armpit).
 The Brachial (brā′kē-ăl) Artery, located in the arm, is a
continuation of the
axillary artery.
 The brachial artery branches at the elbow to form the ulnar (ul′
năr) artery and the radial (rā′dē-ăl) artery
 Ulnar (ul′ năr) Artery - which supply blood to the forearm and
hand.
 Radial (rā′dē-ăl) Artery - is the one most commonly used for
taking a pulse.
Thoracic Aorta and its Branches
Thoracic Aorta and its Branches

The branches of the thoracic aorta can be divided into two groups:
 The Visceral (vis′ er-ă l) Arteries - supply the thoracic organs
 The visceral branches of the thoracic aorta supply the esophagus, the
trachea, the parietal pericardium, and part of the lung.
 The Parietal (pă -rı̆ ′ ĕ -tă l) Arteries- supply the thoracic wall.
 The major parietal arteries are the posterior intercostal (in-ter-kos′ tă
l) arteries, which arise from the thoracic aorta and extend between
the ribs.
 Posterior Intercostal (in-ter-kos′ tă l) Arteries - supply the intercostal
muscles, the vertebrae, the spinal cord, and the deep muscles of the
back.
Thoracic Aorta and its Branches

 The Superior Phrenic (fren′ ik; diaphragm) Arteries -

supply the diaphragm.
 The Internal Thoracic Arteries are branches of the
subclavian arteries. They descend along the internal
surface of the anterior thoracic wall and give rise to
branches called the Anterior Intercostal arteries
 Anterior Intercostal arteries - which extend between the
ribs to supply the anterior chest wall
Abdominal Aorta and its Branches
Abdominal Aorta and its Branches

 The visceral arteries are divided into paired and unpaired

branches.
 There are three major unpaired branches: the celiac (sē ′ lē -
ak; belly) trunk, the superior mesenteric (mez-en-ter′ ik)
artery, and the inferior mesenteric artery.
 Celiac Trunk- supplies blood to the stomach, pancreas, spleen,
upper duodenum, and liver.
 The Superior Mesenteric Artery - supplies blood to the small
intestine and the upper portion of the large intestine
 Inferior Mesenteric Artery - supplies blood to the remainder of
the large intestine
Abdominal Aorta and its Branches

 There are three paired visceral branches of the

abdominal aorta.
 Renal (rē′ nal; kidney) Arteries - supply the
kidneys
 Suprarenal (sū′ pră-rē′ năl; superior to the
kidney) Arteries- supply the adrenal glands
 Testicular Arteries - supply the testes in male
 Ovarian Arteries- supply the ovaries in females
Abdominal Aorta and its Branches

 The parietal branches of the abdominal aorta

supply the diaphragm and abdominal wall.
 The inferior phrenic arteries - supply the
diaphragm
 The lumbar arteries - supply the lumbar vertebrae
and back muscles
 The Median Sacral Artery - supplies the inferior
vertebrae
Arteries of the Pelvis

 The abdominal aorta divides at the level of the fifth

lumbar vertebra into two common iliac arteries.
 External Iliac Artery - which enters a lower limb
 Internal Iliac Artery - which supplies the pelvic area
 Visceral branches of the internal iliac artery supply organs such as
the urinary bladder, rectum, uterus, and vagina.
 Parietal branches supply blood to the walls and floor of the pelvis;
the lumbar, gluteal, and proximal thigh muscles; and the external
genitalia.
Arteries of the Abdomen and
Pelvis
Arteries of the lower limbs
Arteries of the lower limbs

 The external iliac artery in the pelvis becomes the Femoral (fem′ ŏ-răl)
Artery in the thigh
 Popliteal (pop-lit′ ē-ăl) Artery in the popliteal space, which is the
posterior region of the knee.
 Anterior Tibial Artery and the, Posterior Tibial Artery- both of which give
rise to arteries that supply blood to the leg and foot.
 The anterior tibial artery becomes the Dorsalis Pedis (dōr-sāl′ lis pē′ dis;
pes, foot) Artery at the ankle
 The posterior tibial artery gives rise to the fibular artery, or peroneal
artery
 Fibular Artery, or Peroneal Artery- which supplies the lateral leg and foot
Arteries of the lower limbs

 The femoral triangle is located in the superior and medial area of the
thigh.
 Its margins are formed by the inguinal ligament, the medial margin of
the sartorius muscle, and the lateral margin of the adductor longus
muscle.
 A pulse in the femoral artery can be detected in the area of the
femoral triangle. This area is also susceptible to serious traumatic
injuries that result in hemorrhage and nerve damage. In addition,
pressure applied to this area can help prevent bleeding from wounds
in more distal areas of the lower limb. The femoral triangle is an
important access point for certain medical procedures as well.
Major Veins
 Blood Vessels of the systemic
Circulation: Veins

 Superior Vena Cava - Returns blood from

the head, neck, thorax, and upper limbs to
the right atrium of the heart
 Inferior Vena Cava - returns blood from the
abdomen, pelvis, and lower limbs to the
right atrium
Veins of the head and neck
Veins of the head and neck

 The External Jugular Veins are the more superficial of the

two sets. They drain blood from the posterior head and
neck, emptying primarily into the subclavian veins.
 The Internal Jugular Veins are much larger and deeper.
They drain blood from the brain and the anterior head,
face, and neck. The internal jugular veins join the
subclavian veins on each side of the body to form the
brachiocephalic veins.
 The Brachiocephalic Veins join to form the superior vena
cava.
Veins of the upper limbs
Veins of the upper limbs

 The Deep Veins, which drain the deep structures of the

upper limbs, follow the same course as the arteries and
are named for their respective arteries. The only
noteworthy deep veins are the brachial veins
 Brachial Veins - which accompany the brachial artery and empty
into the axillary vein
 The Superficial Veins- drain the superficial structures of
the upper limbs and then empty into the deep veins.
 The Cephalic (sĕ′ fal′ ik; toward the head) Vein, which empties into
the axillary vein, and the basilic (ba-sil′ ik) vein, which becomes
the axillary vein, are the major superficial veins.
Veins of the upper limbs

 TheMedian Cubital (kū′ bi-tal) Vein usually

connects the cephalic vein or its tributaries
with the basilic vein.
 CubitalFossa - and is often used as a site
for drawing blood.
Veins of the thorax
Veins of the thorax

 Three major veins return blood from the thorax to the superior vena
cava: the right and left brachiocephalic veins and the azygos (az-ı̆′ gos, az′
i-gos) vein
 Blood drains from the anterior thoracic wall by way of the anterior
intercostal veins.
 These veins empty into the internal thoracic veins, which empty into the
brachiocephalic veins.
 Blood from the posterior thoracic wall is collected by posterior
intercostal veins that drain into the azygos vein on the right and the
hemiazygos vein or the accessory hemiazygos vein on the left.
 The hemiazygos and accessory hemiazygos veins empty into the azygos
vein, which drains into the superior vena cava
 Major Veins of the
Abdomen and Pelvis
Veins of the Abdomen and Pelvis

 Blood from the posterior abdominal wall drains through ascending lumbar
veins into the azygos vein.
 Blood from the rest of the abdomen and from the pelvis and lower limbs
returns to the heart through the inferior vena cava.
 The gonads (testes or ovaries), kidneys, adrenal glands, and liver are the only
abdominal organs outside the pelvis from which blood drains directly into the
inferior vena cava.
 The internal iliac veins drain the pelvis and join the external iliac veins from
the lower limbs to form the common iliac veins.
 The common iliac veins combine to form the inferior vena cava
Veins of the Abdomen and Pelvis

 A portal (pōr′ tăl) system - is a vascular system that begins and ends with
capillary beds and has no pumping mechanism, such as the heart, in between.
 The hepatic (he-pa′ tik) portal system - begins with capillaries in the viscera
and ends with capillaries in the liver.
 The major tributaries of the hepatic portal system are the splenic (splen′ ik)
vein and the superior mesenteric vein.
 The inferior mesenteric vein - empties into the splenic vein.
 Splenic Vein - carries blood from the spleen and pancreas.
 The superior and inferior mesenteric veins - carry blood from the intestines.
 The splenic vein and the superior mesenteric vein join to form the hepatic
portal vein, which enters the liver.
 Hepatic veins -where blood from the liver flows which join the inferior vena
cava.
 Renal veins –carry blood from the kidney and the
 Suprarenal veins drain the adrenal glands
 Testicular veins- drain the testes in males;
 Ovarian veins- drain the ovaries in females
Veins of the Lower Limbs

 The veins of lower the lower limbs, like those of the upper limbs, consist of
deep and superficial group.
 Deep veins follow the same path as the arteries and are named for the
arteries they accompany.
 Superficial veins consist of:
1. Great saphenous- originates over the dorsal and medial side of the foot and
ascends along the medial side of the leg and thigh to empty in the femoral
vein.
2. Small saphenous- begins over the lateral side of foot and joins the popliteal
vein, which becomes the femoral vein.
Physiology of Circulation

 The function of the circulatory system is to maintain adequate blood flow to

all the body tissue.
 Adequate blood flow is required to provide nutrients and Oxygen to the
tissues and to remove the waste products of metabolism from the tissues.
 Blood flows through the arterial system primarily as a result of the pressure
produced by contractions of the heart ventricles.
Blood Pressure

 Measure of the force blood exerts against the blood vessel walls.
 In arteries, blood pressure values go through a cycle that depends on the
rhythmic contractions of the heart.
 Systolic pressure- when the ventricles contract, blood is forced into the
arteries, and the pressure reaches a maximum value.
 Diastolic pressure- when the ventricles relax, blood pressure in the arteries
falls to a minimum value
 Auscultatory- Most often use method to determine blood pressure.
 A blood pressure cuff connected to a sphygmomanometer is wrapped around
the patient’s arm, and a stethoscope is placed over the brachial artery.
 Korotkoff sounds –turbulance produces vibration in the blood and surrounding
tissues that can be heard through the stethoscope.
 As the pressure in the blood pressure cuff is lowered still more, the Korotkoff
sounds change tone and loudness. When the pressure has dropped until the
brachial artery is no longer constricted and blood flow is no longer turbulent,
the sound disappear completely. The pressure at which the sounds disappear
is diastolic pressure.
Measuring Blood Pressure

1. When the cuff pressure is high enough to keep the brachial artery closed, no blood
flows through it, and no sound is heard.
2. When cuff pressure decreases and is no longer able to keep the brachial artery
closed, blood is pushed through the partially opened brachial artery, producing
turbulent blood flow and sounds. Systolic pressure is the pressure where the
sound is first heard.
3. As cuff pressure continues to decrease, the brachial artery opens even more
during systole. At first, the artery is closed during diastole, but as cuff pressure
continues to decrease, the brachial artery partially opens during diastole.
4. Eventually, cuff pressure decreases below the pressure in the brachial artery, and
it remains open during systole and diastole. Nontubulent flow is reestablished, and
no sounds are heard. Diastole pressure is the pressure where the sounds
disappears.
Pulse Pressure

 Difference between the systolic and diastolic pressure

 When stroke volume increases, the systolic pressure increases more than the
diastolic pressure. This leads to an increase in the pulse pressure. During
periods of exercise, the stroke volume and pulse pressure increase
substantially.
 Arteriosclerosis- arteries are less elastic than normal. Arterial pressure
increases rapidly and falls rapidly in these less elastic arteries.
 Ejection of blood from the left ventricle into the aorta produces a pressure
wave, or pulse, which travels rapidly along the arteries.
Capillary Exchange

 There are about 10 billion capillaries in the body.

 The major forces responsible for moving fluid through the capillary wall are
blood pressure and osmosis.
 Blood pressure forces fluid out of the capillary, and osmosis moves fluid into
the capillary.
 The exchange of materials across the capillary wall varies as blood passes
from one end of the capillary to the other. At the arterial end of the capillary,
the movement of the fluid out of the capillary due to blood pressure is
greater than the movement of fluid into the capillary due to osmosis.
Process of Capillary Exchange

1. At the arterial end of the capillary, the movement of fluid out of the capillary
due to blood pressure is greater than the movement of fluid into the capillary
due to osmosis.
2. At the venous end of the capillary, the movement of fluid into the capillary
due to osmosis is greater than the movement of fluid out of the capillary due
to blood pressure.
3. Approximately nine-tenths of the fluid that leaves the capillary at its arterial
end reenters the capillary at its venous end. About one –tenth of fluid passes
into the lymphatic capillaries.
 Edema- swelling, results from a disruption in the normal inwardly and
outwardly directed pressures across the capillary walls.
Control of Blood Flow in Tissues

 Mechanism that control blood flow through tissues are classified:

1. Local Control of Blood Flow

2. Nervous and Hormonal Control
Local Control of Blood Flow

 Achieved by the periodic relaxation and contraction of the precapillary

sphincters.
 When the sphincters relax, blood flow through the capillaries increases.
 When the sphincters contract, blood flow through the capillaries decreases.
 The precapillary sphincters are controlled by the metabolic needs of the
tissues.
Nervous and Hormonal Control of Blood
Flow
 Carried out primarily through the sympathetic division of the autonomic
nervous system.
 Sympathetic nerve fibers innervate most blood vessels of the body, except the
capillaries and precapillary sphincters,which have no nerve supply.
 Vasomotor center- area of the lower poms and upper medulla oblongata,
continually transmits a low frequency of action potentials to the sympathetic
nerve fobers that innervate blood vessels of the body.
 Vasomotor tone- the peripheral blood vessels are continually in a partially
constricted state.
Regulation of anterial pressure

 Mean arterial blood pressure

 Cardiac output
 Peripheral resistance
 Heart rate
 Stroke volume
Baroreceptor reflexes

 Respond to stretched in arteries cause by increase pressure

 Baroreceptor reflexes- regulate blood pressure on a moment to moment basis.
Chemoreceptor reflexes

 Respond to change in blood concentration of oxygen and carbon dioxide as

well as pH.
 Carotid bodies- small structure that line near the carotid sinuses