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BIG OR

SMALL?
HOW SMALL MUTATIONS PAY BIG
OFF • A life-sized model of a 1434 A.D. Korean water clock known as
Jagyeongnu, on display at The National Palace Museumof
Korea. As the water rises in the large tank, a floating rod

1. touches a lever, causing beads to trigger devices that strike a


gong, bell, or drum, and lift up a time announcement board.

• First appeared in the 16th century B.C. in


Babylon and Egypt, ranged from desk size
2. to house size.

• The water clock, called a clepsydra, wasn’t very


accurate. An indicate of how inaccurate a
clepsydra was is the fact that a sundial was

3. used to make corrections in the water clock’s


time-keeping.

Clepsydra
HOW SMALL MUTATIONS PAY BIG
OFF• 1250 A.D. , a mechanical mutation came along
to change all that. It was a very small and

1.
very simple device that would revolutionize
time-keeping, and it is still in use today.

• The escape wheel with all the points on it is


turned by the constant force from a battery,
spring, or weight. A shaft from the wheel
2. connects to a system of gears to turn the
hands of a clock.

• The escapement is a small thing, but consider


what it has made possible in commerce,

3.
travel, factories, science, and worrying where
your children are at this hour.
HOW USB REALLY IS UNIVERSAL?
HOW USB REALLY IS UNIVERSAL?
HOW USB REALLY IS UNIVERSAL?

Universal Serial Bus 3 (USB3) lives up to its name


not only because it can connect to any PC
peripheral you can name. It’s also a universal
system that replaces the kludgy serial and
parallel ports I talked about in Chapter 9, “The
Origins of Computer DNA,” along with a variety
of others not mentioned. And it remains
universally usable by older computers and
peripherals that can use only USB1 or USB2. This
is evolution at its best and an example of how
much difference a couple of small wires can
WHAT IS USB?

The Universal Serial Bus is technology that allows


a person to connect an electronic device to a
computer.
USB is a cross-platform technology that is
supported by most of te major operating system.
On windows it can be used with Windows 98 and
higher.
USB is a hot swappable technology, meaning that
USB drives can be added and removed without
having to restart the computer.
USB is also a “plug and play”. When you connect a
HOW USB REALLY IS UNIVERSAL?
HOW USB REALLY IS UNIVERSAL?
DIGITAL
CAMERAS

HARDRIVES
SCANNERS

EXTERNAL
COMPUTER
MICE
HOW USB REALLY IS UNIVERSAL?
HOW USB REALLY IS UNIVERSAL?
HOW USB REALLY IS UNIVERSAL?
• The USB3 connector on a PC looks similar to a USB port but with a notch on one side. USB3
controllers operate using a dual-bus architecture that allows the bus to run USB2 and

1.
USB1 on one set of wires while also sending data 10 times faster—5 gigabits per second—
through a second set of wires.

• The connections on either side of the notch lead to the same cable, which also
contains power and ground lines for supplying electricity that peripherals need

2.
to function. USB2 transmissions of data, or signals, travel over USB2’s normal
pair of thin, unshielded twisted wires.

• USB3 signals are carried by shielded, multi-core wires within wires that are configured as
two shielded differential pairs (SDP) inside the same cable as the USB2 wiring. The pairs
use thicker wires and a layer of braided metal strips as skins surrounding each pair. Each

3.
of the USB3 braided pairs can be used for transmission and reception; that means USB3
connections can read and write data simultaneously—dual simplex—compared to USB
2.0’s half duplex scheme.
HOW USB REALLY IS UNIVERSAL?
• Essentially all electrical signals consist of pulses of electricity of a
certain time span and voltage. To achieve 5GB bandwidth, USB signals
4. must be shorter so that more of them can be sent in the same length of
time.

• Electromagnetic interference that wouldn’t affect signals in the longer, larger


voltage changes in USB2 transmissions can wreak havoc with USB3 signals.

5. Shielding is needed to cut out the electrical noise that disturbs the integrity of the
signal and prevents the bus from achieving that 5GB/s throughput.

• Down each of the paired wires, USB3 sends signals that are identical
6. except that their voltages are the opposite of each other.
HOW USB REALLY IS UNIVERSAL?
• Any electrical interference that makes it through the shielding affects the
signals in both wires identically so that the voltage of each is raised or
7. lowered the same amount. The difference in voltage between A and B
equals the difference between A1 and B1.

• When the signals—now distorted if they’ve hit a pocket of noise—are received, a


subtracted measures the difference in the voltages of the two signals. These
8. differences in the values are used to determine the data encoded in the signals.

• The connectors at the receiving end are designed to work with USB3
or USB2 equipment. The common Standard A port has pins on
9. opposite sides. USB2 and USB3 plugs go into the same port upside-
down in respect to each other.
HOW USB REALLY IS UNIVERSAL?

10. For the USB Standard B port, often found on printers, a “penthouse”
has been added to the USB2 port to accommodate plugs for USB3.
USB2 plugs still connect normally.
1Gb
100 mb
500mb
100 mb
2TB 800mb
10 mb

1Tb
4Tb 000 mb
100 mb
8Gb
150 mb
5 mb
16Gb 28gb
HOW LITTLE BITS ADD UP TO BIG CHANCES

ZONE BIT PERPENDICULAR Bit Patterned


RECORDING MAGNETIC Media (2013)
RECORDING (2007)

Shingled Memory
Recording
(2011)
Zoned Bit Recording (1996)
PERPENDICULAR MAGNETIC RECORDING (2007)
BIT PATTERNED MEDIA (2013)
SHINGLED MEMORY RECORDING (2011)
HOW FILE COMPRESSION MAKES FILES
SMALLER?
TITLE OF THE FOLDER DRIVE SIZE COMPRESS SIZE

1. Akagame Ga Kill 1.18 GB 1.17GB

2. Ao No Exorcist 1.88 GB 1.86 GB

3. One Piece (Episode 1.23 GB 1.22 GB


26-50)
4. Music 80 MB 76.9 MB

Total 5.9GB 5.1 GB


HOW FILE COMPRESSION MAKES FILES
SMALLER?

1. Files, even those on a compressed disk, can


be made still smaller by file compression—a
process often called zipping a file. This type of
compression reduces file size by eliminating
the redundancies in the file. This is called
lossless compression, which means
decompression can precisely restore every bit in
the file.
HOW FILE COMPRESSION MAKES FILES
SMALLER?

2. The compression program uses


some variation of a scheme
generally called LZ (after its
creators, Lempel and Ziv)
adaptivedictionary-based algorithm.
HOW FILE COMPRESSION MAKES FILES
SMALLER?

3. Where the pattern would have been


written to disk, LZ instead writes a much
shorter pointer that tells where the
omitted pattern can be found in the
dictionary.
HOW FILE COMPRESSION MAKES FILES
SMALLER?

4. Some types of files, such as word-


processing documents and databases,
are prone to redundancies and are
particularly susceptible to compression.
Length matters, too; the longer the file,
the more likely it is that LZ can find
repeated patterns.
HOW FILE COMPRESSION MAKES FILES
SMALLER?

5. When your computer reads the compressed


file and encounters a pointer, it decompresses
that part of the file by retrieving the pattern
from its place in the dictionary index and
writing the pattern to RAM so that the
original data is reconstructed down to the
last bit.
HOW FILE COMPRESSION MAKES FILES
SMALLER?

The formats for some types of files, particularly graphics


and database files, include their own compression.
Graphics and media files often use lossy compression,
which r educes file size by forever discarding data, such
as small variations of color and sounds outside our
range of hearing, whose loss won’t be noticed. Lossy
compressed files cannot be decompressed to their
original state. on storage efficiency and speed of access.

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