The Language QL

Ch. 21-2
Logic 150
Fall 2017
Sungwoo Um
Quantifying Expressions
1) Fido is a dinosaur.
All dinosaurs are scary.
So, Fido is scary.
2) The John hates anyone who loves Katie.
Ava loves Katie.
So, the John hates Ava.
3) Some philosophers admire every rapper.
No philosopher admires any liar.
So, no rapper is a liar.
 Universal Generalization
(1) Every play by Shakespeare is worth seeing.
(2) Any play by Shakespeare is worth seeing.
Cf.
(4) I don’t believe that every play by Shakespeare is worth
seeing.
(5) I don’t believe that any play by Shakespeare is worth seeing.
(6) If every play by Shakespeare is worth seeing, I’ll eat my hat.
(7) If any play by Shakespeare is worth seeing, I’ll eat my hat.
 Universal Generalization
(8) All plays by Shakespeare are worth seeing.
(9) Each play by Shakespeare is worth seeing.
Cf.
(10) I don’t believe that all plays by Shakespeare are worth
seeing.
(11) If all plays by Shakespeare are worth seeing, I’ll eat my hat.
(12) Jack can read all of the plays in a day.
(13) Jack can read each of the plays in a day.
 Quantifiers and Scope
• ‘Some Fs are not Gs’
(6′) (Some Fs are such that)(it is not the case that) they are Gs.
(6″) (It is not the case that)(some Fs are such that) they are Gs.
e.g. (a) Some bachelors are not married.
(b) Some dogs are not brown.
 Quantifiers and Scope
(7) Daniel is crazy about some female student in Logic 150;
(7′) Tim is crazy about some female student in Logic 150;
(7″) Max is crazy about some female student in Logic 150.

(8) Every man in the class is crazy about some female student
in Logic 150.
 Quantifiers and Scope
(9) Every man in the class is crazy about Jolan,
(9′) Every man in the class is crazy about Eunice,
(9″) Every man in the class is crazy about Ava.

(10) Every man in the class is crazy about some female student
in Logic 150.
 Quantifiers and Scope
• ‘Every man in the class is crazy about some female student
in Logic 150.’
(10′) (Every man in the class is such that)(there is some
female student in Logic 150 such that) he is crazy about her.
 Guys usually like girls!
(10″) (There is some female student in Logic 150 such
that)(every man in the class is such that) he is crazy about her.
 There is a Queen in Logic 150!
 Quantifiers and Scope
• Proper names are scopeless; whereas with quantifiers
issues of relative scope can arise.
e.g.
(3°) John Doe plotted in 1988.
(5°) Kasparov might possibly win.
(6°) Michael does not deserve five million a year.
(10°) Tim is crazy about Katie.
 Quantifiers and Scope
• We must devise our notation so that the scope of a
quantifier is always clear and there is no possibility of scope
ambiguities.
 Quantification without Ambiguity
• ‘Everyone loves someone or other.’
(1) (Everyone is such that)(there is someone such that) he/she
loves him/her.
(2) (Everyone is such that)(there is someone such that) the
former loves the latter [or, the first loves the second].
(3) (Everyone is such that)(there is someone is such that) the
latter loves the former [or, the second loves the first].
(2′) (Everyone x is such that)(someone y is such that) x loves y.
(3′) (Someone x is such that)(everyone y is such that) y loves x.
 Quantifiers!
A. Universal Quantifier ‘∀’
‘∀x’ means ‘every x is such that’.

B. Existential Quantifier ‘∃’

‘∃y’ means ‘there exists some y such that’.
 Quantification without Ambiguity
• ‘Everyone loves someone or other.’

(2″) (∀x)(∃y)x loves y.

 Everybody loves y! (Queen again?)

(3″) (∃x)(∀y)x loves y.

 Universal lover. (Jesus?)
 Names and Predicates
• Names
(aka Individual constants)
m, n, o, …
 Names and Predicates
• Predicates
One place predicates: F, G, H, …
e.g. ‘… smokes’, ‘… is a philosopher’
Two place predicates: L, M, …
e.g. ‘… is crazy about…’, ‘…was a student of…’
Three place predicates: R, S, …
e.g. ‘…prefers…to…’, ‘… is between … and …’
Forming wffs in QL
• An n-place predicate combines with n names (not
necessarily different ones) to form an atomic wff.
• Form that combination by writing the predicate followed
by the right number of names.

e.g. Fn, Lnm, Loo, Rnmo, Romo

Interpretation for QL
• Examples

‘m’ means Socrates

‘n’ means Plato
‘o’ means Aristotle
‘F’ means … is wise
‘L’ means … loves …
‘R’ means … prefers … to …
Interpretation for QL
• Examples

‘Fn’ means Plato is wise.

‘Lnm’ means Plato loves Socrates.
‘Loo’ means Aristotle loves himself.
‘Rnmo’ means Plato prefers Socrates to Aristotle.
‘Romo’ means Aristotle prefers Socrates to himself.
Connectives in QL
• Five Propositional Connectives from PLC
e.g.
(Fm ∨ Fn)
¬(Lnm ∧ Lmn)
(Rnmo ⊃ (Lnm ∧ ¬Lno))
((Fm ∨ Fn) ≡ (Lom ∨ Lon))

Cf.
F(n ∧ o)
(F ∧ G)n
 Pronouns
• Pronouns
(aka Individual variables)
x, y, z, …
 Quantifiers!
A. Universal Quantifier ‘∀’
‘∀x’ means ‘every x is such that’.
‘for all x’, ‘for all y’

B. Existential Quantifier ‘∃’

‘∃y’ means ‘there exists some y such that’.
‘for some x’, ‘for some y’
Forming Quantifiers
• Either of ‘∀’ or ‘∃’ followed by an individual variable yields
a quantifier.

e.g. ∀x, ∃y
Forming Quantified wffs in QL
• Take a QL wff C(…c…c…) containing at least one
occurrence of the constant c. Replace all the occurrences
of c with some variable v new to C, and prefix the result
with ∀v or ∃v, so we get ∀vC(…v…v…) or
∃vC(…v…v…). That yields another wff.

e.g. Rmno Cf. Rmno

∃zRzno ∃xRxno
∀x∃zRznx ∀x∃xRxnx
∀y∀x∃zRzyx ∀x∀x∃xRxxx
Forming Quantified wffs in QL
• More examples
The Domain of Discourse
• The domain is the [non-empty] set of objects that
we are ‘quantifying over’, the set of ‘everything’
we are talking about.
e.g.
‘∀xFx’ is then interpreted as saying that everything
in the domain of discourse is F.
‘∃xFx’ says that something in the domain of discourse
is F.
The Domain of Discourse
• ∀vC(…v…v…) says that everything in the domain
of discourse has the property which plain
C(…c…c…) attributes to the object picked out by c.
• ∃vC(…v…v…) says that at least one thing in the
domain has the property which plain C(…c…c…)
attributes to the object picked out by c.
Example
• Domain of discourse: People
• F: …is wise

∃xFx: Someone is wise

¬∃xFx: No one is wise
∃x¬Fx: Someone is not wise.
Example
• Domain of discourse: People
• m: Socrates
• F: …is wise
• L: …loves…

∀x(Fx ⊃ Lmx): Everyone is such that if they are wise,

then Socrates loves them.
[Socrates loves anyone who is wise.]
Example
• Domain of discourse: People
• m: Socrates
• n: Plato
• F: …is wise
• L: …loves…

∃yLmy: Socrates loves someone or other

∀x∃yLxy: everyone loves someone or other.
∀xLxn: Plato is loved by everyone
∃y∀xLxy: There is someone such that everyone loves them
Domain and Name
(1) Fn
entails
(2) ∃xFx
only if the domain of discourse does contain the thing
named by ‘n’.
When we are interpreting QL, we need to ensure that
everything named by some constant is in the domain of
discourse.
(1) is a substitution instance of (2)
Exercise 22
The domain of discourse is people
‘m’ stands for Socrates
‘n’ stands for Plato
‘F’ means … is wise
‘G’ means … is a philosopher
‘L’ means … loves …
Exercise 22
Translate into English!
Exercise 22
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