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BJT Transistors:
NPN
Transistor Sandwiching a
P-type layer
between two n-
type layers.
PNP
Transistor Sandwiching a
N-type layer
between two p-
type layers.
How a “NPN” Transistor works?
Base
Emitter
Active: Always on
Ic=BIb
Off :Ic=0
Off as a switch
Transistor as a Switch
• Transistors can be used as switches.1
Transistor Switch
X
12V
Variable
Voltage
Supply
1) LED = Off.
2) Cover LDR.
3) RLDR .
4) VLDR .
Input = Voltage Divider 5) Transistor switches on.
Process = Transistor 6) LED = On.
Output = LED
Transistor as an amplifier:
The measure of
amplification is the gain of
transistor.
Example:
Input Amplitude =0.2v
Output amplitude=10v
Gain=10/0.2=50
Field Effect Transistors
JFET MOSFET CMOS
How a JFET transistor
works?
WHY?
Vout=A(Vin – Vref)
If Vin>Vref, Vout = +∞ but practically
hits +ve power supply = Vcc
If Vin<Vref, Vout = -∞ but practically
A (gain) hits –ve power supply = -Vee
very high
VREF Vcc
-Vee
VIN
OPAMP: ANALYSIS
V+ = VIN.
By virtual ground, V- = V+
Thus Vout = V- = V+ = VIN !!!!
1. V- = V+
2. As V+ = 0, V- = 0
3. As no current can
enter V- and from
Kirchoff’s Ist law,
I1=I2.
4. I1 = (VIN - V-)/R1 = VIN/R1
5. I2 = (0 - VOUT)/R2 = -VOUT/R2 => VOUT = -I2R2
6. From 3 and 6, VOUT = -I2R2 = -I1R2 = -VINR2/R1
7. Therefore VOUT = (-R2/R1)VIN
OPAMP: NON – INVERTING
AMPLIFIER
1. V- = V+
2. As V+ = VIN, V- = VIN
3. As no current can
enter V- and from
Kirchoff’s Ist law,
I1=I2.
4. I1 = VIN/R1
5. I2 = (VOUT - VIN)/R2 => VOUT = VIN + I2R2
6. VOUT = I1R1 + I2R2 = (R1+R2)I1 = (R1+R2)VIN/R1
7. Therefore VOUT = (1 + R2/R1)VIN
SUMMING AMPLIFIER
Recall inverting
If
amplifier and
If = I1 + I2 + … + In