Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
Chapter
6
Communications,
Networks, & Safeguards
6.1 From the Analog to the Digital Age
6.2 Networks
6.3 Wired Communications Media
6.4 Wireless Communications Media
6.5 Cyberthreats, Hackers, & Safeguards
6.6 The Future of Communications
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Computers use digital signals Time
6-5
From the Analog to the Digital Age
Tape recorders, voices, and musical instruments are
analog while CDs are digital
To burn a CD from a jam session, the digital recording
equipment must convert from analog to digital
The analog-to-digital converter samples the sound and
converts the height of the wave to a number
Samples of the sound wave are taken at regular intervals
– about 44,100 times each second
Because the digital samples are played back faster than
our ears can react, it sounds to us like a single
continuous sound wave 6-6
From the Analog to the Digital Age
Digital sampling is similar to showing movies
Movies show still pictures (frames)
But they show them so fast that our eyes can’t react in
time
So to us the series of still pictures look like continuous
motion
Did you ever notice in movies when they show car tires in
motion they sometimes seem to move backwards?
Thisis because the tires are moving at a rate that is
incompatible with the frame rate of the movie, so our eyes
think the tires are really moving backwards when the car is
actually moving forward! 6-7
Networks
A system of interconnected computers, telephones, or
other communications devices that can communicate
with one another and share applications and data
Before we had computer networks, people used
“sneakernet” to share data between computers
Person 1 saved their document to a floppy disk
Then they walked over to person 2’s desk (wearing
sneakers, of course) and handed over the disk to
person 2
Person 2 loaded the disk into their computer to read and
edit the document 6-8
Networks
Since the days of “sneakernet”, networks have
become standard. They enable us to:
Share peripheral devices such as laser printers
Share programs and data
Use e-mail and other communication programs
Backup critical information because it is stored centrally
Access shared databases
6-9
Networks
WAN – Wide Area Network Covers a wide geographic area,
such as a country or the world
MAN – Metropolitan Area Covers a city or a suburb
Network
LAN – Local Area Network Connects computers and devices
in a limited geographic area such
as an office, building, or group of
nearby buildings
HAN – Home Area Network Uses wired, cable, or wireless
connections to link a household’s
digital devices
PAN – Personal Area Network Uses short-range wireless
technology to connect an
individual’s personal electronics
like cellphone, PDA, MP3 player,
6-10 notebook PC, and printer
Networks
Client/Server
Consists of clients, which are computers that request
data, and servers, which are computers that supply data
File servers act like a network-based shared disk drive
Database servers store data but don’t store programs
Print servers connect one or more printers and schedule
and control print jobs
Mail servers manage email
Peer-to-Peer
Allcomputers on the network communicate directly with
each other without relying on a server
For fewer than 25 PCs 6-11
Networks
Peer-to-Peer (continued)
Cheaper than client/server since servers are typically more
expensive than PCs
There are often problems with knowing who has the current
version of documents and files
Too slow for use in larger offices
Legal considerations
Downloading copyrighted material without paying violates U.S.
copyright laws
Server-based online file sharing sites such as Napster have
been shut down
Peer-to-Peer file-sharing sites such as Kazaa, Grokster, and
Gnutella have been more difficult to control since there is no
central server to shut down
So publishers are suing individual downloaders instead
6-12
Watch out! Don’t download illegally!
Networks
Intranets, Extranets, VPNs
Intranets
An organization’s private network that uses the
infrastructure and standards of the internet and the web
Extranets
Private internets that connect not only internal personnel
but also selected suppliers and other strategic parties
Virtual Private Networks
Private networks that use a public network, usually the
internet, to connect remote sites
6-13
Network
Components
Connections
Wired – twisted-pair, coaxial cable, or fiber-optic
Wireless – infrared, microwave (Bluetooth), broadcast
(Wi-Fi) or satellite
Hosts & Nodes
Host:the central computer that controls the network
Node: a device that is attached to the network
Packets
The format for sending electronic messages
A fixed-length block of data for transmission
6-14
Network
Components
Protocols
The set of conventions governing the exchange of data
between hardware and/or software components in a
communications network
Built into the hardware or software you are using
Govern the packet design and transmission standards
Examples are:
TCP/IP for LANs and internet
AppleTalk for older Mac networks
SIP for Voice over IP (VoIP)
CDMA for cellphones
IPX for older Novell networks
6-15
Network
Packets
TCP/IP Packets carry four types of information
Sender’s address (source IP number)
Address of intended recipient (destination IP number)
Number of packets the original data was broken into
This happens because the amount of data the PC is sending can
be much larger than the space in a single packet
So the data has to get broken up in one or more packets
Then the packets have to be assigned a number like 1 of 6, 2 of 6,
3 of 6, 4 of 6, 5 of 6, and 6 of 6
Packet number and sequence info for each packet
Packets may arrive out of order (1, 6, 3, 2, 5, 4 for example)
This information is used to resequence the packets and put them
back in the correct order (1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6) so they can be read
6-16
Network
Devices
Daisy Used in peer-to-peer networks – direct
Chain connections from one PC to the next
Hub Used in small LANs to connect PCs and LAN
segments to each other. Forwards to all ports
Switch Used in larger, busy LANs – faster than hubs
because it forwards only to correct destination
Bridge Used to connect two networks of the same type
Gateway Connects two networks of different types
Router Connects multiple LANs together. Routers are
the internet backbone
Backbone The main route that connects all the gateways,
routers, and other computers in an organization
6-17
Network
Topologies
Bus – all nodes are connected to a single wire or cable
Ring – all nodes are connected in a continuous loop
Star – all nodes are connected through a central host
6-18
Network
Packet Collision Schemes
Collisions happen when two data packets are going
opposite directions on shared media
Ethernet – deals with collisions
All
devices send data at once
Collisions happen regularly
Data is simply resent until it arrives
Coaxial Cable
Insulated copper wire wrapped in a metal shield and then in an
external plastic cover
Used for cable TV and cable internet electric signals
Carries voice and data up to 200 megabits per second
6-20
Wired Communications Media
Communications media continued
Fiber-optic cable
Dozens or hundreds of thin strands of glass or plastic that
transmit beams of light, not electricity
Can transmit up to 2 gigabits per second
More expensive than twisted-pair or coax
Lighter and more durable than twisted-pair or coax
More difficult to tap into than twisted-pair or coax
6-21
Wired Communications Media
for the home
Ethernet
PullCat5 cables through the house (yourself or contractor)
Connect to PC’s Ethernet network interface card (nic)
For several PCs, get a hub or switch to connect them all
10 or 100 megabits per second
HomePNA
Uses existing telephone wiring and jacks
Requires HomePNA nic in your PC
Speeds of 10 – 240 megabits per second
Homeplug
Uses existing home electrical lines
Speeds of 14 megabits per second
6-22
Wireless Communications Media
Electromagnetic spectrum of radiation is the basis of all
telecommunications signals
Includes the longest radio waves (9 kHz) and audio waves (sound), up
through gamma rays that come from nuclear decay (thousands of
gigahertz)
Radio-frequency spectrum is the part of the electromagnetic spectrum
that we use for radio communication
6-23
Wireless Communications Media
Bandwidth
Narrowband (or Voiceband)
Used for regular telephone communications
Transmission rate < 100 kilobits per second
Medium Band
Used for long-distance data transmission or to
connect mainframe and midrange computers
Transmission rate 100 kb to 1 megabit per second
Broadband
For high-speed data and high-quality audio and video
Transmission rate 1 megabit per second to 100
megabits per second
US households get 4 – 5 MB while Japanese get 100
MB per second 6-24
Wireless Communications Media
Infrared Transmission
Sends signals using infrared light
Frequencies are too low to see (1-4 Mbits per second)
Broadcast Radio
AM/FM, CB, ham, cellphones, police radio
Sends data over long distances using a transmitter and a
receiver
Microwave Radio
Superhigh frequency radio waves (1 gigahertz)
Requires line-of-sight transmitters and receivers
Communications Satellites
6-25
Wireless Communications Media
Communications Satellites
These are microwave relay stations in orbit around the earth -
Uplinking: transmitting a signal from ground station to a satellite
Cover broad service area
Cost $300 million to $700 million each + launch costs
Can be placed at different heights: GEO, MEO, LEO
GEO – geostationary earth orbit
22,300 miles up above earth
Always above equator
MEO – medium-earth orbit
5,000 – 10,000 miles up
LEO – low-earth orbit
200 – 1,000 miles up
Has less signal delay than GEO, MEO satellites
6-26
Wireless Communications Media
GPS
Global Positioning System
24 earth-orbiting satellites continuously transmitting timed
radio signals
Each satellite circles earth twice each day at 11,000 miles
up
GPS receivers pick up transmissions from up to 4 satellites
and pinpoint the receiver’s location
Accurate within 3 – 50 feet, with a norm of 10 feet accuracy
GPS receivers contain map files that are displayed based
on the GPS position to guide users
Many GPS receivers have speech chips, too
6-27
Wireless Communications Media
One-way Pagers
One-way pagers are radio receivers that receive data
sent from a special radio transmitter
Radio transmitter sends out signals over the special
frequency
Pagers are tuned to that frequency
When a particular pager hears its own code, it receives
and displays the message
Discussion Question: Why do airplane rules require you to turn off
pagers and cellphones during flight?
Answer: Pilots use radar and radio to determine their position and
communicate with ground control. Pager and cellphone signals use
radio, too, and competing signals can interfere with each other
6-28
Wireless Communications Media
Long-Distance Wireless
Two-way pagers: Blackberry and Treo
1G: First Generation Cellular
Analog cellphones
Designed for voice communication using a system of
hexagonal ground-area cells around transmitter-receiver
cell towers
Good for voice – less effective for data due to handing off
2G: Second Generation Cellular
Use same network of cell towers to send voice and data
in digital form over the airwaves
Required digital receivers on original analog celltowers
6-29
Wireless Communications Media
2G Wireless
There are two competing, incompatible standards
CDMA – Code Division Multiple Access
Transmission rates 14.4 kilobits per second
Used by Verizon and Sprint
6-30
Wireless Communications Media
2.5G Wireless
Data speeds of 300–100 kilobits per second
GPRS – General Packet Radio Service
Anupgrade to 2.5G
Speeds of 30 – 50 kilobits per second
6-31
Wireless Communications Media
3G Wireless
Third generation wireless
High speed data: 144 kilobits per second up to 2
megabits per second Discussion
Accept e-mail with attachments Question: If
your cellphone
Display color video and still pictures
can download
Play music and play music,
Two important upgrades: do you still
EV-DO – Evolution Data Only need an i-pod?
Average speeds of 400 – 700 kilobits per second, peaks of 2
megabits per second
UMTS – Universal Mobile Telecommunications System
Average speed of 220 – 320 kilobits per second
6-32
Wireless Communications Media
Short-range Wireless
Local Area Networks
Range 50 – 150 feet
Include Wi-Fi (802.11) type networks
6-33
Wireless Communications Media
Short-range Wireless
Wi-Fi (802.11) networks
Wi-Fi b, a, and g correspond to 802.11b, 802.11a, and
802.11g
802.11 is an IEEE wireless technical specification
802.11b is older, transmits 11 megabits per second
802.11a is faster than b but with weaker security than g
802.11g is 54 megabits per second and transmits 50 ft
Wi-Fi n with MIMO extends range of Wi-Fi using multiple
transmitting and receiving antennas – 200 megabits per
second for up to 150 ft
Warning! Security is disabled
6-34 by default on Wi-Fi
Wireless Communications Media
Short-range Wireless
Wi-Fi Security
Why is it disabled by default?
So non-technical users can get Wi-Fi working more easily
Why should this bother me?
A person with a $50 antenna can eavesdrop on everything
your computer sends over wireless from a block or two
away
This is called “wardriving”
Wireless USB
USB is the most used interface on PCs
The wireless version could be a hit
Range of 32 ft and maximum data rate of > 480 megabits
6-37
per second
Wireless Communications Media
Short-Range Wireless for Home
Insteon
Combines electronic powerline and wireless technology
Can send data at 13.1 kilobits per second with 150 ft range
Replaces X10
ZigBee
Entirely wireless very power-efficient technology
Can send data at 128 kilobits per second with 250 ft range
Z-Wave
Entirely wireless power-efficient technology
Can send data at 127 kilobits per second to range of 100 ft
Allows you to remotely program your house!
6-38
Cyberthreats, Hackers, &
Safeguards
Problem: internet was begun to foster collaboration
among universities and scientists. They trusted each
other. No security was built into the internet.
Problem: the internet is open-access and is used by
some people who are not trustworthy, who take
advantage of the lack of built-in safeguards.
Problem: Most people connect to the internet and use
their computers in LANs. All it takes is one computer
on a LAN that has been compromised for all computers
on it to be vulnerable.
6-39
Cyberthreats, Hackers, &
Safeguards
Denial of Service Attacks
Consist of making repeated requests of a computer or
network device, thereby overloading it and causing
legitimate requests to be ignored
Used to target particular companies or individuals
Worms
A program that copies itself repeatedly into a computer’s
memory or disk drive
May copy itself so much it crashes the infected computer
Famous worms include: Code Red, SQL Slammer,
Nimda, MyDoom, Sasser
Primarily target PCs running Microsoft Windows
6-40
Cyberthreats, Hackers, &
Safeguards
Viruses
A deviant program that hides on a floppy, hard drive, CD,
or e-mail that causes unexpected side effects such as
destroying or corrupting data
Viruses self-replicate and try to secretly distribute
themselves to other systems
Famous viruses include the “I Love You” virus
Viruses are published at the rate of about one per day
To see what the latest ones are, go to
http://www.symantec.com/avcenter/vinfodb.html
6-41
Cyberthreats, Hackers, &
Safeguards
Trojan Horses
Programs that pretend to be a useful program such as a
free game or screensaver.
Carry viruses or malicious instructions that damage your
computer or install a backdoor or spyware
Backdoors and spyware allow others to access your
computer without your knowledge
6-42
Cyberthreats, Hackers, &
Safeguards
How they spread
Via e-mail attachments
By infected floppies or CDs
By clicking on infiltrated websites
By downloading from infected files from websites
Through infiltrated Wi-Fi hotspots
From one infected PC on a LAN to another