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Deep Foundation

(Pile Foundation)
Pile
Foundation
PILE FOUNDATION
Piles are structural members made of steel, concrete, and/or timber used to
transfer the structural loads to competent strata and/or resist loads by skin
friction.

Pile foundations are foundations which are deep and more costly than shallow
foundations.

Despite the cost, the use of piles is often necessary to ensure structural safety.

Drilled shafts are cast-in-place piles that generally have a diameter greater than
750 mm with or without steel reinforcement and with or without an enlarged
bottom.

NEED FOR PILE FOUNDATIONS/APPLICATION OF PILE FOUNDATION:

Pile foundations are needed in special circumstances. The following are


some situations in which piles may be considered for the construction of
a foundation.
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NEED FOR PILE FOUNDATIONS/APPLICATION OF PILE FOUNDATION:
1.(a) When the upper soil layer(s) is (are) highly compressible and too weak to
support the load transmitted by the superstructure, piles are used to transmit the
load to underlying bedrock or a stronger soil layer, as shown in Figure a.

1(b).When bedrock is not encountered at a reasonable depth below the ground


surface, skin friction piles are used to transmit the structural load to the soil
gradually (suitable soil is granular soil in this case).

The resistance to the applied structural load is derived mainly from the frictional
resistance developed at the soil–pile interface (Figure b).

In figure b the pile are


driven up to such a
depth that frictional
resistance developed at
the sides of the piles
equals the load coming
on the piles
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2. When subjected to horizontal forces (see Figure c), pile
foundations resist by bending while still supporting the
vertical load transmitted by the superstructure.

This situation is generally encountered in the design and


construction of earth-retaining structures and foundations of
tall structures that are subjected to strong wind and/or
earthquake forces.

3. In many cases, the soils at the site of a proposed structure may be


expansive and collapsible.

These soils may extend to a great depth below the ground surface.

Expansive soils swell and shrink as the moisture content increases and
decreases, and the swelling pressure of such soils can be considerable.
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If shallow foundations are used, the structure may suffer
considerable damage.

However, pile foundations may be considered as an


alternative when piles are extended beyond the active zone,
which swells and shrinks (Figure d).

Soils such as loess are collapsible. When the moisture


content of these soils increases, their structures may break
down.

A sudden decrease in the void ratio of soil induces large


settlements of structures supported by shallow foundations.

In such cases, pile foundations may be used, in which piles


are extended into stable soil layers beyond the zone of
possible moisture change.
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4. The foundations of some structures, such as transmission towers, offshore
platforms, and basement mats below the water table, are subjected to uplifting
forces. Piles are sometimes used for these foundations to resist the uplifting
force (Figure e).

5. Bridge abutments and piers are usually constructed over pile foundations to
avoid the possible loss of bearing capacity that a shallow foundation might
suffer because of soil erosion at the ground surface (Figure f).(Fly overs piers
are also supported by pile foundation due to dynamic loading).

Although numerous investigations,


both theoretical and experimental, have
been conducted to predict the behavior
and the load-bearing capacity of piles in
granular and cohesive soils, the
mechanisms are not yet entirely
understood and may never be clear.

The design of pile foundations may be


considered somewhat of an “art” as a
result of the uncertainties involved in
working with some subsoil conditions
Types of Pile Foundation
Type of Piles Based on Material

Different types of piles are used in construction work, depending on


The types of load to be carried
The subsoil conditions and
The location of the water table

One the basis of materials, piles can be divided into the following categories.

1. Steel piles
2. Concrete Piles
3. Wooden (timber) piles
4. Composite Piles

Steel piles generally are either pipe piles or rolled steel H-section piles.
Pipe piles can be driven into ground with their ends open or closed.

General facts about steel piles


Usual length: 15 – 60 m (50 – 200 ft)
Usual load: 300 kN – 1200 kN (67 – 256 kip / 33 – 128 ton)
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H-piles:
These pile are usually
of wide flange section.

They are suitable for


trestle type structure (A
supporting tower used to
support a bridge) in
which pile extend
above ground level and
act as column.

They have small cross


section area, there for
they can be easily
driven In soil.

It used as long pile


with high bearing
capacity.
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Type of Piles Based on Material


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Advantages

Easy to handle with respect to cutoff (1) and extension to the desired length
Can stand high driving stresses
Can penetrate hard layers such as dense gravel and soft rock
High load-carrying capacity

Disadvantages

Relatively costly

High level of noise during pile driving

Subject to corrosion

H-piles may be damaged or deflected from the vertical during driving through

hard layers or past major obstructions.


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Concrete piles – Precast

Two categories: (a) Precast Piles (b) Cast-in-situ piles

General facts about Precast concrete piles


Usual length: 10 – 15 m (30 – 50 ft)
Usual load: 300 kN – 3000 kN (67 – 675 kip / 33 – 337 ton)

Advantages
Can be subjected to hard driving
Corrosion resistant
Can be easily combined with a concrete superstructure

Disadvantages
Difficult to achieve proper cutoff
Difficult to transport
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Various shapes of Precast Concrete piles


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Concrete piles – Precast Pre-stressed

Precast piles can be prestressed by use of high-strength steel pre-stressing


cables.

During casting of piles, the cables are pre-tensioned to about 900-1300 MN/m2
(130-190 ksi), and concrete is poured around them.

General facts about precast prestressed concrete piles


Usual length: 10 – 45 m (30 – 150 ft)
Max length: 60 m (200 ft)
Max load: 7500 – 8500 kN (1700 – 1900 kip / 850 – 950 ton)

Advantages and disadvantages are same as those of precast piles

Strand: Line
consisting of a
complex of fibers
or filaments that
are twisted
together to form a
thread or a rope
or a cable
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Concrete piles – Cased cast-in-situ

Cast-in-situ piles are built by driving a steel casing into the ground with the
help of a mandrel inside the casing. When the pile reaches the proper depth,
the mandrel is withdrawn and casing is filled with concrete.

General facts about cased cast-in-situ concrete piles


Usual length: 5 – 15 m (15 –50 ft)
Max length: 30 – 40 m (100 – 130 ft)
Usual load: 200 –500 kN (45 – 115 kip / 22 – 57 ton)
Max Load: 800 kN (180 kip / 90 ton)

Advantages
Relatively cheap
Allow for inspection before pouring concrete
Easy to extend

Disadvantages
Difficult to splice after concreting
Thin casing may be damaged during driving
Cased driven cast in-situ concrete pile
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Friction Pile

Heavy loads
Marine structure

Cast-in-place concrete piles


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Monotube pile
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Monotube pile

Franki
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Concrete piles – Uncased cast-in-situ
Cast-in-situ piles are built by making a hole in the ground and then filling it with
concrete. These piles are divided into two broad categories: (a) cased, and (b)
uncased.

General facts about Uncased cast-in-situ concrete piles


Usual length: 5 – 15 m (15 –50 ft)
Max length: 30 – 40 m (100 – 130 ft)
Usual load: 300 –500 kN
(67 – 115 kip / 33 – 57 ton)
Max Load: 700 kN (160 kip / 80 ton)

Advantages
Initially economical
Can be finished at any elevation

Disadvantages Uncased driven cast in-situ concrete pile


Voids may be created if concrete is placed rapidly
Difficult to splice after concreting
In soft soils, the sides of the hole may cave in, squeezing the concrete
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Timber piles

Timber piles are tree trunk that have had their branches and bark carefully
trimmed off. This is the basis of a simple classification
The maximum length of most of the timber piles is 10 to 20 meter.
To qualify for use as a pile, the timber should be straight, sound, and without
any defects. In any case, a pile tip should not have a diameter less than 6
inches.

Composite piles

The upper and lower portions of composite piles are made of different
materials. For example the composite piles may be made of steel and concrete
or timber and concrete.

Steel-and-concrete piles consist of a lower portion of steel and an upper


portion of cast-in-place concrete.
This type of pile is used when the length of pile required for adequate bearing
exceeds the capacity of simple cast-in-place concrete piles.
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Classification on the basis of Length and mechanism of load transfer
Pile can be divided into three major categories, depending on their lengths and
the mechanisms of load transfer to the soil

1. Point bearing piles / End bearing piles


2. Friction Piles
3. Compaction Piles

Point bearing piles / End bearing piles

If the soil-boring records establish the presence of bedrock or rocklike material


at a site within a reasonable depth, piles can be extended to the rock surface.
In this case, the ultimate capacity of piles depends entirely on the load bearing
capacity of the underlying materials; thus piles are called point bearing piles.

End bearing pile rests on a relative firm soil . The load of the structure is
transmitted through the pile into this firm soil or rock because the base of the
pile bears the load of the structure, this type of pile is called end bearing pile
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Point bearing piles / End bearing piles

PILES SOFT SOIL

ROCK
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Friction Piles
If the firm soil is at a considerable depth,
it may be very expensive to use end
bearing piles. In such situations, the piles When loose soil extended
are driven through the penetrable soil for to a great depth, pile are
some distance. The piles transmit the load driven up to such a depth
of structure to the penetrable soil by that frictional resistance
means of skin friction between the soil. developed at the sides of
the piles equals the load
coming on the piles.

PILES SOFT SOIL


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Compaction Piles
Under certain circumstances, piles are driven in granular soils to achieve
proper compaction of soil close to the ground surface. These piles are called
compaction piles
The lengths of compaction piles depend on factors such as the relative density
of soil before compaction, the desire relative density of soil after compaction
and the required depth of compaction.

Type of Piles on the basis of Installation


Displacement Piles
Displacement piles cause the soil to be displaced radially as well as vertically
as the pile shaft is driven or jacked into the ground.
Driven piles are displacement piles because they move some soil laterally;
hence, there is a tendency for the densification of soil surrounding them.
Concrete piles and closed-ended pipe piles are high-displacement piles.
However, steel H-piles displace less soil laterally during driving, and so they
are low-displacement piles.
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Non Displacement Piles / Replacement Piles
With non-displacement piles (or replacement piles), soil is removed and the
resulting hole filled with concrete or a precast concrete pile is dropped into the
hole and grouted in.
Bored piles are non displacement piles because their placement causes very
little change in the state of stress in the soil.
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Installation of Piles
Dropping weight/ Drop Hammer
The dropping weight or drop hammer is the most commonly used method of
insertion of displacement piles.
A weight approximately half that of the pile is raised a suitable distance and
released to strike the pile head.
Variants of the simple drop hammer are the single acting and double acting
hammers.
These are mechanically driven by steam, by compressed air or hydraulically.
In the single acting hammer the weight is raised by compressed air (or other
means) which is then released and the weight allowed to drop. This can happen
up to 60 times a minute.
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The double acting hammer is the same except compressed air is also used on
the down stroke of the hammer.
The double acting hammer is a type of hammer which is not always suitable for
driving concrete piles however.
Although the concrete can take the compressive stresses exerted by the
hammer the shock wave set up by each blow of the hammer can set up high
tensile stresses in the concrete when returning. This can cause the concrete to
fail.
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Diesel Pile Hammers

Diesel Pile hammers work well under hard driving conditions


They essentially consist of a ram, an anvil block and a fuel injection system

The ram is mechanically raised to the top of the cylinder and released.
A fuel mixture is injected into the cylinder and compressed by the falling ram.
The fuel is detonated and the resulting explosion imparts an additional impact
to the pile which is already moving downwards under the effect of hammer
blow. The explosion also raises the ram, keeping it ready for next down stroke.

Diesel Pile Hammers


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Vibratory Method

Vibratory methods of driving sheet piles or bearing piles are best suited to
sandy or gravel soils.
Vibratory hammers are electrically or hydraulically powered and consists of
contra-rotating eccentric masses within a housing attached to the pile head.
The eccentric weight during each revolution provide two vertical impulses, one
up and one down.
Vibrators are rarely used in the stiff clay.

Vibratory pile driver


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Jacking method

Jacked piles are most commonly used in underpinning existing structures.


By excavating underneath a structure short lengths of pile can be inserted and
jacked into the ground using the underside of the existing structure as a
reaction.
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CAUSES OF PILE FAILURES

• Absence of statistical data regarding the nature of soil strata through which
the piles are to be driven.
• Actual load coming on the pile being more than the design load.
• Bad workman ship in case of the cast-in-situ cement concrete piles.
• Breakage due to over driving especially in case of the timber piles.
• Buckling of piles due to removal of side support, inadequate lateral support,
etc.
• Lateral forces (wind, waves, currents etc.) not being taken into the design of
the pile.
• Improper choice of the type of pile.
• Improper choice of the method of driving the pile.
• Improper classification of pile.
• Insufficient reinforcement or misplacement of reinforcement in case of the
R.C.C. piles.
• Wrongful use of pile formula for determining its load bearing capacity.
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The bearing capacity of a single pile depends on the structural strength
of pile and the supporting strength of the soil.

Pile capacity as Evaluated by the structural strength of the pile


Obviously, a pile must be strong enough structurally to carry the load
imposed upon it. A pile’s structural strength depends on its size and
shape as well as the type of material of which it is made.

Pile capacity as evaluated by the supporting strength of the soil

Different formulae are available to obtain the capacity of piles

Dynamic formulae/Pile driving formulae are developed to calculate the


capacity of pile based on the amount of energy delivered to a pile by the
hammer and resulting penetration of the pile.
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PILE-DRIVING FORMULAS

In theory, it seems possible to calculate pile capacity based on the amount of


energy delivered to a pile by the hammer and resulting penetration of the pile.
the greater the resistance required to drive a pile, the greater will be the
capacity of the pile to carry load.

Many attempts have been made to develop pile-driving formulas by equating


energy delivered by the hammer to work done by the pile as it penetrates a
certain distance against a certain resistance, with an allowance made for energy
losses.

Generally, no pile-driving formula has been developed that gives accurate


results for pile capacity.

Soil resistance does not remain constant during and after the pile-driving
operation. In addition, pile-driving formulas give varying results.

Although pile-driving formulas are not generally used to determine pile


capacity, they may be used to determine when to stop driving a pile so that its
bearing capacity will be the same as that of a test pile or of other piles driven in
the same subsoil.
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To accomplish this, one should drive piles until the number of blows required to
drive the last inch is the same as that of the test piles that furnished the
information for evaluating the design load.

However, piles driven in soft silt or clay should all be driven to the same depth
rather than driven a certain number of blows (Terzaghi and Peck, 1967).

Penetration resistance can also be used to prevent pile damage due to


overdriving.

One simple and widely used pile-driving formula is known as the Engineering-
News formula. It is given as follows (Karol, 1960):
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where
WR = weight of the ram
h = height of fall of the ram
S = penetration of the pile per hammer blow
C = a constant

The pile penetration, S, is usually based on the average value obtained from the
last few driving blows. In the equation’s original form, the following values of C
were recommended:

For drop hammers: C = 2.54 cm (if the units of S and h are in centimeters)
For steam hammers: C = 0.254 cm (if the units of S and h are in centimeters)

In SI unit with Qa computed in kN if Wr is in kN, H in m, S in


mm/blow, and C= 25 for drop
hammers and 2.5 for steam hammers. The Engineering-
News formula has a built-in factor of safety of 6.
Tests have shown that this formula is not reliable for
computing pile loads, and it should be avoided except
as a rough guide (McCarthy, 2002).
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The design capacity of a 0.3-m-diameter concrete pile is 160 kN. The pile is
driven by a drop hammer with a manufacturer’s hammer energy rating of 40
kN.m.

Required
Average penetration of the pile from the last few driving blows.
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Another pile-driving formula is known as the Danish formula. It is given as
follows (McCarthy, 2002):

where Qultimate ultimate capacity of the pile


eh efficiency of pile hammer (see Table 1)
Eh manufacturer’s hammer energy rating (see Table 2)
S average penetration of the pile from the last few driving blows
S0 elastic compression of the pile
S0
L length of pile
A cross-sectional area of pile Table 1
E modulus of elasticity of pile material

Statistical studies indicate that a factor


of safety of 3 should be used with the
Danish formula.
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Table 2
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EXAMPLE
1. The design capacity of a 12-in. steel-pipe pile is 100 kips.
2. The pile’s modulus of elasticity is 29,000 kips/in2.
3. The pile’s length is 40 ft.
4. The pile’s cross-sectional area is 16 in2
5. The hammer is a Vulcan 140C with a weight of pile hammer ram of 14,000 lb
and manufacturer’s hammer energy rating of 36,000 ft-lb.
6. Hammer efficiency is assumed to be 0.80.

Required
1. What should be the average penetration of the pile from the last few driving
blows?

2. How many blows/ft for the last foot of penetration are required for the
design capacity, using the Danish formula?
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A precast concrete pile 305 mm x 305 mm in cross section is driven by a
hammer.
We have these values:
maximum rated hammer energy = 35 kN-m
weight of ram = 36 kN
total length of pile = 20 m
hammer efficiency = 0.8
weight of pile cap = 3.2 kN
number of blows for last 25.4 mm of penetration = 5
Estimate the allowable pile capacity
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1 M = 100 CM

543.33 KN
3
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Pile Capacity as Evaluated by the Supporting Strength of the Soil

In addition to the strength of the pile itself, pile capacity is limited by the soil’s
supporting strength. As mentioned previously, the load carried by a pile is
ultimately carry by either or both of two ways.
The load is transmitted to the soil surrounding the pile by friction or adhesion
between the soil and the sides of the pile, and/or the load is transmitted directly
to the soil just below the pile’s tip. This can be expressed in equation form as
follows:

Qultimate  Qfriction  Qtip


where Qultimate = ultimate (at failure) bearing capacity of a single pile

Qfriction = bearing capacity furnished by friction or adhesion between


the soil and piles surface

Qtip = bearing capacity furnished by the soil just below the pile’s
tip.
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The term Qfriction can be evaluated by multiplying the unit skin friction or
adhesion between the soil and the sides of the pile (f) by the pile’s surface (skin)
area (Asurface).

The term Qtip can be evaluated by multiplying the ultimate bearing capacity of
the soil at the tip of the pile (q) by the area of the tip (Atip).hence, the above Eq.
can be expressed as follows:

Qultimate  f . Asurface  q. Atip


In the case of end-bearing piles, the term Qtip or q xAtip will be predominant,
whereas with friction piles, the term Qfriction or fx Asurface will be predominant

These Equations are generalized and therefore applicable for all soils.

However some of the terms in the above Eqs are evaluated differently,
depending on whether the pile is driven in sand or clay. It is convenient,
therefore, to consider separately piles driven in sand and those driven in clay.
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Piles Driven in Sand.
In the case of piles driven in sand, skin friction between the soil and the
sides of the pile [fxAsurface] can be evaluated by multiplying the coefficient of
friction between sand and pile surface (tan δ) by the total horizontal soil
pressure acting on the pile.
The coefficient of friction between sand and pile surface can be obtained from
Table 3.
Table 3 The coefficient of friction between
sand and pile surface
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The total horizontal soil pressure acting on
the pile is a function of effective vertical
(overburden) pressure of soil adjacent to the
pile.

Soil pressure normally increases as depth


increases. In the special case of piles driven
in sand, however, it has been determined
that the effective vertical (overburden)
pressure of soil adjacent to a pile does not
increase without limit as depth increases.
Instead, effective vertical pressure increases
as depth increases until a certain depth of
penetration is reached. Below this depth,
which is called the critical depth and
denoted Dc’, effective vertical pressure
remains more or less constant.

Variation of effective vertical (overburden)


pressure of soil adjacent to a pile with depth
(Meyerhof, G.G., 1976)
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The critical depth is dependent on the field
condition of the sand and the pile’s size.
Tests indicate that critical depth ranges from
about 10 pile diameters/width for loose sand
to about 20 pile diameters/width for dense
compact sand (McCarthy, 1977).

Thus, effective vertical pressure of soil


adjacent to a pile varies with depth as
illustrated in Figure

The term fxAsurface can now be determined for


a pile by multiplying the pile’s circumference
by the area under the pv versus depth curve
(see Figure) by the coefficient of lateral earth
pressure (K) by the coefficient of friction
between sand and pile surface (tan δ). The
coefficient of lateral earth pressure is f.Asurface = (Pile circumference).(Area under Pv
assumed to vary between 0.60 and 1.25, with diagram).(K).(tan)
lower values used for silty sands and
f.Asurface = (D).(Area under Pv
higher values for other deposits (Bowles,
diagram).(K).(tan
1977).
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The bearing capacity at the pile tip [q] can be
calculated by using the following equation:

qtip = pvxNq*

where pv effective vertical pressure adjacent


to pile’s tip and
Nq* bearing capacity factor from figure
It is related to the angle of internal friction
(φ) of the sand.

Pile capacity thus determined represents the


ultimate load that can be applied to the
pile. In practice, it is common to apply a
factor of safety of 2 to determine the
(downward) design load for the pile
(McCarthy, 2002).

Nq* bearing capacity factor for


piles penetrating into sand.
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Pile driven in sand - summary

Qultimate  f skin  Asurface  qtip  Atip

Skin friction

f skin  Asurface   D    Area under Pv -depth curve   K    tan  


End/tip bearing

qtip  Atip   Pv  N q   Atip


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Example
1. A concrete pile is to be driven into a medium dense to dense sand.
2. The pile’s diameter is 12 in., and its embedded length is 25 ft.
3. Soil conditions are shown in Figure.
4. No groundwater was encountered, and the groundwater table is not
expected to rise during the life of the structure

The pile’s axial capacity if the


coefficient of lateral earth pressure (K)
is assumed to be 0.95, and the factor of
safety (F.S.) is 2.
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The same conditions as in above Example, except that groundwater is located 10
ft below the ground surface (see Figure)

The pile’s axial


capacity if the
coefficient of lateral
earth pressure (K) is
assumed to be 0.95,
and the factor of
safety (F.S.) is 2.
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Piles Driven in Clay. Relationship between adhesion factor (α)
and unconfined compressive strength, qu
The above equation (Qultimate =
Qfriction + Qtip and Qultimate = fxAsurface
+ qxAtip ) also applies for piles driven
in clay.

Unit adhesion between the soil and


the sides of the pile [f ] can be
evaluated by multiplying the
cohesion of the clay (c) by the
adhesion factor (α).

The adhesion factor (α) can be


determined by using adjoin Figure.

The term fxAsurface of the above Eq.


can thus be evaluated by multiplying
the (undisturbed) cohesion of the
clay (c) by the adhesion factor (α) by
the surface (skin) area of the pile 1 ton/ft2 = 95.76 kN/m2
(Asurface). i.e. fxAsurface = αcAsurface
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With soft clays, there is a tendency for the clay to come in close contact with
the pile, in which case adhesion is assumed to be equal to cohesion
(meaning α = 1.0).

In the case of stiff clays, pile driving disturbs surrounding soil and may
cause a small open space to develop between the clay and the pile. Thus,
adhesion is smaller than cohesion (meaning α < 1.0).

The bearing capacity [q in the above Eq] at the pile tip can be calculated by
using the following equation (McCarthy, 2002):

qtip = cNc

where qtip is bearing capacity at pile tip c = cohesion of the clay located in the
general vicinity of where the pile tip will ultimately rest
Nc = bearing capacity factor and has a value of about 9 (McCarthy, 2002)
The term qxAtip = cNc .Atip
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Pile driven in Clay - summary

Qultimate  f  Asurface  q  Atip

Skin friction

f  Asurface  c  Asurface
End/tip bearing

qtip  cN c

Qultimate  cAsurface  cN c Atip


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Example
A 12 in. diameter concrete pile is driven
at a site as shown in Figure. The
embedded length of the pile is 35 ft.
Qdesign =?
Required
Design capacity of the pile, using a
GSL
factor of safety of 2.

Clay

35 ft  = 104 lb/ft3
qu = 1400 lb/ft2
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Given
A 12 in. diameter concrete pile is
driven at a site as shown in Figure. Qdesign =?

Required
Design capacity of the pile, using a GSL
factor of safety of 2.
Clay

20 ft  = 105 lb/ft3
qu = 1400 lb/ft2

Clay
15 ft
 = 126 lb/ft3
qu = 4000 lb/ft2
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From figure with qu = 1400 Ib/ft2


= 0.7 ton/ft2 α = 0.9

1 ton/ft2 = 95.76 kN/m2


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From figure with qu = 4000 Ib/ft2
= 2.0 ton/ft2 α = 0.56

1 ton/ft2 = 95.76 kN/m2


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Example
1. A 0.36-m square prestressed concrete pile is to be driven in a
clayey soil (see Figure)
2. The design capacity of the pile is 360 kN.

The necessary length of the pile if the factor of safety is 2.


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1 ton/ft2 = 95.76 kN/m2 The required length of the 0.36-m


square pile is 10.4 m.
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PILE LOAD TESTS are performed on
site on test piles to determine or
verify the design capacity of piles.

Normally, piles are designed initially by


analytical or other methods, based
on estimated loads and soil
characteristics

Pile load tests are performed on test


piles during the design stage to
check the design capacity.

If pile load test results indicate possible


bearing failure or excessive
settlement, the pile design should be
revised accordingly.

Also the data collected from pile load


tests develop criteria for foundation
installation.
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Schematic setup for test-pile loading: Using hydraulic jack acting


against anchored reaction frame
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Schematic setup for test-pile loading: using weighted platform.


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Construction
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PROCEDURE:

• The set-up consists of two anchor piles provided with an anchor girder or
reaction girder at their top.

• The test pile is installed between the anchor piles as like foundation pile is
installed. The test pile should be at lest 3B or 2.5m clear from the anchor pile.

• When pile load test shall be conducted


The test is conducted 3 days after the installation in sandy soils and period of
one month in silts and soft clays.

• Application of Load
The load is applied through a hydraulic jack resting on the reaction girder or
Truss. The measurement of pile movement are taken with respect to a fixed
reference mark.

The load is applied in equal increment of about 20% of the allowable load (the
load at which the pile will be tested).

Test load = Twice the safe load or the load at which the total settlement reaches
the specified value
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By Reaction Girder or Anchor Girder method
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• How to record settlement
Settlement should be recorded with 3 dial gauges.

• Each stage of the loading is maintained till the rate of movement of the pile
top is not more than
0.1mm per hour in sandy soils and
0.02mm per hour in case of clayey soils
maximum of two hours.

• Time interval to observe settlement


Under each load increment, settlements are observed at 0.5, 1, 2, 4, 8, 12, 16,
20, 60 minutes and 2 hours.
The last stage of loading will be continued for 24 hours or even more
depending upon the settlement

• The loading should be continued up to twice the safe load or the load at
which the total settlement reaches a specified value.

• How to remove the load


The load is removed in the same decrements at 1 hour interval & the final
rebound recorded 24 hours after the entire load has been removed.
• Plot a graph of Load-Settlement and make a curve for loading as well as
unloading obtained from a pile load test.
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Safe load will be least of below
2/3 of the final load at which total settlement is 12 mm
2/3 of the load corresponding to a net settlement of 6 mm
1/2 of load corresponding to a total settlement of (B/10) (7.5% incase of under-
reamed pile)

The limiting criteria (sometimes specified)

Under the total load (twice the safe load)


The net settlement should not be more than 20 mm
The gross settlement should not be more than 25 mm
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The allowable pile load is generally determined based on criteria specified by
applicable building codes.

There are many building codes and therefore many criteria for determining
allowable pile loads based on pile tests. It is, of course, the responsibility of
engineers to follow criteria specified by the applicable building code.
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Example

1. A 12-in.-diameter pipe pile with a length of 50 ft was subjected to a pile


load test.
2. The test results were plotted and the load-settlement curve is shown in
Figure.
3. The local building code states that the allowable pile load is taken as one
half of that load that produces a net settlement of not more than 0.01
in./ton but in no case more than 0.75 in.

Allowable pile load.


Solution

Net settlement = Gross settlement – Rebound


Because a test load of 200 tons produces a net settlement of 0.72 in. and the
maximum allowable settlement is 0.75 in.,

Allowable pile load = 200 tons/2 = 100 tons


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Given
The same conditions as in the above example, except that another local
building code is to be applied as follows: “The allowable pile load shall be
not more than one-half of that test load that produces a net settlement per
ton of test load of not more than 0.01 in., but in no case more than 0.5 inch.”
Required
Allowable pile load.

From the above example

Because a test load of 150 tons produces a net settlement of 0.32 in.
and the maximum allowable settlement is 0.5 in.,
Allowable pile load = 150 tons/2 = 75 tons
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Some building codes use a “breaking in the curve” or the point defined by
tangents drawn on either side of a break of a load–settlement graph.

One building code states that the design load on piles may be determined by
the designer based on an analysis of the results of pile load tests performed
in accordance with ASTM D-1143.

The allowable pile load shall be determined by the application of a safety


factor of 2 to the ultimate pile capacity as determined by the intersection of
the initial and final tangents to a curve fitted to the plotted results of the pile
load test. The fitted curve shall not extend to any point at which the pile
continued to move under the applied load.
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Required
Assuming that the building
code given just prior to this
example is applicable, find
the allowable load on the
pile.
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To construct a pre-stressed bridge, a 30 cm diameter pile of length 12 m was
subjected to a pile load test and the following results were obtained.

Determine the allowable load


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Negative Skin Friction

Piles depend, in part at least, on skin friction for


support. Under certain conditions, however, skin friction may develop that
causes down drag on a pile rather than support. Skin friction that causes
down drag is known as negative skin friction.

Negative skin friction is downward drag acting on the piles due to the relative
movement between the piles and the surrounding soil.
Negative skin friction can develop under different field condition, such as the
following:

1. When a cohesive fill is placed over a non-cohesive soil layer and a pile is
driven into such a medium. The cohesive fill consolidates, and during the
process of consolidation the fill imparts a downward drag on the pile.

2. When a non-cohesive fill is placed over a soft cohesive layer and a pile
installed in such a medium. Due to the overburden pressure, the cohesive
fill consolidates and during the process imparts a downward drag on the
pile.
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3. In a saturated soil, lowering of the ground water table increases the vertical
effective stresses in the soil medium. This induces settlement, and a pile
driven in such a medium is subjected to a downward drag force.

Negative skin friction is, detrimental with regard to a pile’s ability to


carry load. Hence, if conditions at a particular site suggest that negative skin
friction may occur, its magnitude should be determined and subtracted from
the pile’s load carrying ability.
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Pile Groups

So far we discussed the capacity of single piles. But in reality, piles are
almost always arranged in group of three or more.

The group of piles is commonly tied together by a pile cap, which is attached
to the head of individual piles and cause several piles to act together as a pile
foundation.

If two piles are driven close together, soil stresses caused by the piles tend to
overlap; and the bearing capacity of the pile group consisting of two piles is
less than the sum of individual capacities.

If the two piles are moved further apart, so that the individual stresses do not
overlap, bearing capacity of the pile group is not reduced significantly from
the sum of individual capacities.

Thus it would appear that the piles should be spaced relatively far apart. This
consideration is offset.
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When piles are placed in a group,
there is a possibility the pressure
isobars of adjacent piles will
overlap each other as shown
in Fig. (b).

The soil is highly stressed in the


zones of overlapping of
pressures.

With sufficient overlap, either the


soil will fail or the pile group will
settle excessively since the
combined pressure bulb extends
to a considerable depth below the
base of the piles.

It is possible to avoid overlap by


installing the piles further apart
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Minimum allowable pile spacing is often specified by applicable building
codes.

For example, a building code may state that “the minimum center-to-center
spacing of pile

Piles not Driven to Rock shall be not


less than twice the average diameter of a round pile, nor
less than 1.75 times the diagonal dimension of a rectangular or rolled structural
steel pile, nor
less than 2 ft 6 in. (0.76 m)

Piles Driven to Rock, the minimum center-to-center spacing of piles shall be


not less than twice the average diameter of a round pile, nor
less than 1.75 times the diagonal dimension of a rectangular or rolled structural
steel pile, nor
less than 2 ft 0 in. (0.61 m)
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Typical pile grouping patterns for (a)


single footings and

(b) foundation walls.


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Efficiency OF Pile Groups

The capacity of a pile group may be less than the sum of the individual
capacities of the piles making up the group.

In as much as it would be convenient to estimate the capacity of a group of


piles based on the capacity of a single pile, attempts have been made to
determine the efficiency of pile groups.

Efficiency of a pile group is the capacity of a pile group divided by the sum of
the individual capacities of the piles making up the group.
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In the case where a pile group is comprised of end-bearing piles resting
on bedrock (or on a layer of dense sand and gravel overlying bedrock), an
efficiency of 1.0 may be assumed (Jumikis, 1971).

(In other words, the group of n piles will carry n times the capacity of a single
pile.) An efficiency of 1.0 is also often assumed by designers for friction piles
driven in cohesionless soil.

For a pile group composed of friction piles driven in cohesive soil, an


efficiency of less than 1.0 is to be expected because stresses from individual
piles build up and reduce the capacity of the pile group.
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One equation that has been used to compute pile-group efficiency is known as
the Converse–Labarre equation (Jumikis, 1971):
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Given
1. A pile group consists of 12 friction piles in cohesive soil (see Figure).
2. Each pile’s diameter is 12 in., and center-to-center spacing is 3 ft.
3. By means of a load test, the ultimate load of a single pile was found to be
100 kips

Required
Design capacity of the pile group, using the Converse–Labarre equation.
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For friction piles driven in cohesive soil, Coyle and Sulaiman suggested
that pile-group efficiency may be assumed to vary linearly from a value of
0.7 at a pile spacing of three times the pile diameter to a value of
1.0 at a pile spacing of eight times the pile diameter (McClelland, 1972 and
Coyle and Sulaiman, 1970).

For pile spacings less than three times the pile diameter, group capacity may be
considered as block capacity, and total capacity can be estimated by treating
the group as a pier and applying the following equation (Terzaghi and Peck,
1967 and McClelland, 1972):
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Individual Pile Failure and Block Failure

Individual Pile Failure Block Failure


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Conditions
1. In cohesionless soils, individual pile failure occur. The ultimate group
capacity is given by Qg  n  Qu

Qg = ultimate group capacity of pile group, n = number of piles in group


Qu = ultimate individual pile capacity

2. In case of cohesive soil case is different


a) For piles spacing less than 3 times diameters

Qg  2D W  L  f  1.3 c  Nc W  L

The pile group capacity may be considered as block capacity based on block failure
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b) For piles spacing equal to greater than 3 times diameters

Qg  Eg  n  Qu
Eg = Efficiency of pile group, n = number of piles in group
Qu = ultimate individual pile capacity

Converse- Labarre Equations

This pile group capacity is based on the individual pile failure


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Given
1. A pile group consists of four friction piles in cohesive soil (see Figure).
2. Each pile’s diameter is 12 in., and center-to-center spacing is 2.5 ft.

Required
1. Block capacity of the pile group. Use a factor of safety of 3.
2. Allowable group capacity based on individual pile failure. Use a factor
of safety of 2, along with the Converse–Labarre equation for pile-group
efficiency.
3. Design capacity of the pile group.
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1. Block capacity: Because center-to-center spacing of the piles is 2.5 ft, which
is less than 3 ft (i.e., 3 diameters), according to the criteria suggested by
Coyle and Sulaiman (Coyle and Sulaiman, 1970), the block capacity of the
pile group can be estimated by Eq.
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1 ton/ft2 = 95.76 kN/m2


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