Chapter 2 Descriptive Statistics (Week 3)

ELEMENTARY STATISTICS
Chapter 2 Descriptive Statistics
MARIO F. TRIOLA EIGHTH

Chapter 2. Section 2-1 and 2-2. Triola, Elementary Statistics, Eighth Edition. Copyright 2001. Addison Wesley Longman EDITION 1
Chapter 2
Descriptive Statistics
2-1 Overview
2-2 Summarizing Data with Frequency Tables
2-3 Pictures of Data
2-4 Measures of Center
2-5 Measures of Variation
2-6 Measures of Position
2-7 Exploratory Data Analysis (EDA)
Chapter 2. Section 2-1 and 2-2. Triola, Elementary Statistics, Eighth Edition. Copyright 2001. Addison Wesley Longman 2
2 -1 Overview
 Descriptive Statistics
summarize or describe the important
characteristics of a known set of
population data
 Inferential Statistics
use sample data to make inferences (or
generalizations) about a population
Important Characteristics of Data
1. Center: A representative or average value that
indicates where the middle of the data set is located
2. Variation: A measure of the amount that the values

vary among themselves
3. Distribution: The nature or shape of the distribution

of data (such as bell-shaped, uniform, or skewed)
4. Outliers: Sample values that lie very far away from

the vast majority of other sample values
5. Time: Changing characteristics of the data over

time
2-2 Summarizing Data With
Frequency Tables
 Frequency Table
lists classes (or categories) of values,
along with frequencies (or counts) of the
number of values that fall into each class
Table 2-1
Qwertry Keyboard Word Ratings
2 2 5 1 2 6 3 3 4 2
4 0 5 7 7 5 6 6 8 10
7 2 2 10 5 8 2 5 4 2
6 2 6 1 7 2 7 2 3 8
1 5 2 5 2 14 2 2 6 3
1 7
Table 2-3
Frequency Table of Qwerty Word Ratings
Rating Frequency
0-2 20
3-5 14
6-8 15
9 - 11 2
12 - 14 1
Frequency Table
Definitions
Lower Class Limits
are the smallest numbers that can actually belong to
different classes
Lower Class Limits
different classes
Rating Frequency
0-2 20
3-5 14
6-8 15
9 - 11 2
12 - 14 1
Lower Class Limits
different classes
Rating Frequency
0-2 20
Lower Class 3-5 14
Limits 6-8 15
9 - 11 2
12 - 14 1
Upper Class Limits
are the largest numbers that can actually belong to
different classes
Upper Class Limits
are the largest numbers that can actually belong to
different classes
Rating Frequency
0-2 20
Upper Class
3-5 14
Limits
6-8 15
9 - 11 2
12 - 14 1
Class Boundaries
are the numbers used to separate classes, but
without the gaps created by class limits
Class Boundaries
number separating classes
Rating Frequency
- 0.5
0-2 20
2.5
3-5 14
5.5
6-8 15
8.5
9 - 11 2
11.5
12 - 14 1
14.5
Class Boundaries
number separating classes
Rating Frequency
- 0.5
0-2 20
2.5
Class 5.5
3-5 14
Boundaries 8.5
6-8 15
9 - 11 2
11.5
12 - 14 1
14.5
Class Midpoints
midpoints of the classes
Class Midpoints
midpoints of the classes
Rating Frequency
0- 1 2 20
Class
3- 4 5 14
Midpoints
6- 7 8 15
9 - 10 11 2
12 - 13 14 1
Class Width
is the difference between two consecutive lower
class limits or two consecutive class boundaries
Class Width
is the difference between two consecutive lower
class limits or two consecutive class boundaries
Rating Frequency
3 0-2 20
3 3-5 14
Class Width 3 6-8 15
3 9 - 11 2
3 12 - 14 1
Guidelines For Frequency Tables
1. Be sure that the classes are mutually exclusive.
2. Include all classes, even if the frequency is zero.
3. Try to use the same width for all classes.
4. Select convenient numbers for class limits.
5. Use between 5 and 20 classes.
6. The sum of the class frequencies must equal the

number of original data values.
Constructing A Frequency Table
1. Decide on the number of classes .
2. Determine the class width by dividing the range by the number

of classes (range = highest score - lowest score) and round up.
range
class width  round up of
number of classes
3. Select for the first lower limit either the lowest score or a
convenient value slightly less than the lowest score.
4. Add the class width to the starting point to get the second lower
class limit, add the width to the second lower limit to get the
third, and so on.
5. List the lower class limits in a vertical column and enter the
upper class limits.
6. Represent each score by a tally mark in the appropriate class.
Total tally marks to find the total frequency for each class.
Figure 2-1
Relative Frequency Table
class frequency
relative frequency =
sum of all frequencies
Relative Frequency Table
Relative
Rating Frequency Rating Frequency
0-2 20 0-2 38.5% 20/52 = 38.5%

3-5 14 3-5 26.9% 14/52 = 26.9%
6-8 15 6-8 28.8%
etc.
9 - 11 2 9 - 11 3.8%
12 - 14 1 12 - 14 1.9%
Total frequency = 52
Table 2-5
Cumulative Frequency Table
Cumulative
Rating Frequency Rating Frequency
0-2 20 Less than 3 20

3-5 14 Less than 6 34
6-8 15
Cumulative
Less than 9 49
Frequencies
9 - 11 2 Less than 12 51
12 - 14 1 Less than 15 52
Table 2-6
Frequency Tables
Relative Cumulative
Rating Frequency Rating Frequency Rating Frequency
0-2 20 0-2 38.5% Less than 3 20
3-5 14 3-5 26.9% Less than 6 34
6-8 15 6-8 28.8% Less than 9 49
9 - 11 2 9 - 11 3.8% Less than 12 51
12 - 14 1 12 - 14 1.9% Less than 15 52
Table 2-3 Table 2-5 Table 2-6
Section 2-3 Pictures of Data

Chapter 2. Section 2-1 and 2-2. Triola, Elementary Statistics, Eighth Edition. Copyright 2001. Addison Wesley Longman
EDITION 28
Pictures of Data
depict the nature or shape of the
data distribution
Histogram
a bar graph in which the horizontal
scale represents classes and the
vertical scale represents
frequencies
Table 2-3
Frequency Table of Qwerty Word Ratings
Rating Frequency
0-2 20
3-5 14
6-8 15
9 - 11 2
12 - 14 1
Histogram of Qwerty Word Ratings
Figure 2-2
Rating Frequency
0-2 20
3-5 14
6-8 15
9 - 11 2
12 - 14 1
Relative Frequency Histogram
of Qwerty Word Ratings
Relative Figure 2-3
Rating Frequency
0-2 38.5%
3-5 26.9%
6-8 28.8%
9 - 11 3.8%
12 - 14 1.9%
Histogram
and
Relative Frequency Histogram
Figure 2-2 Figure 2-3

Frequency Polygon
Figure 2-4
Ogive
Figure 2-5
Dot Plot
Figure 2-6
Stem-and Leaf Plot
Stem Leaves
Raw Data (Test Grades)

6 7
67 72 85 75 89 7 25
8 5899
89 88 90 99 100 9 09
10 0
Pareto Chart
45,000
40,000
35,000
30,000
Accidental Deaths by Type
25,000
Frequency
20,000
15,000
10,000
5,000
0
Ingestion of food
or object
Fire
Drowning
Firearms
Falls
Poison
Motor Vehicle
Figure 2-7
Pie Chart
Firearms
(1400. 1.9%)
Ingestion of food or object

(2900. 3.9%
Fire
(4200. 5.6%)
Motor vehicle
(43,500. 57.8%) Drowning
(4600. 6.1%)
Poison
(6400. 8.5%)
Falls
(12,200. 16.2%)
Figure 2-8 Accidental Deaths by Type
Scatter Diagram
20
•
•
• • •
•
•
•
• •
•
TAR
10 •
•
• •
• •
•
•
•
•
0
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5
NICOTINE
Deaths in British Military Hospitals During the Crimean War
Figure 2-9
Other Graphs
 Boxplots (textbook section 2-7)
 Pictographs
 Pattern of data over time
Section 2-4 Measures of Center

EDITION
Measures of Center
a value at the
center or middle
of a data set
Definitions
Mean
(Arithmetic Mean)
AVERAGE
the number obtained by adding the
values and dividing the total by the
number of values
Notation
 denotes the addition of a set of values
x is the variable usually used to represent the individual

data values
n represents the number of data values in a sample
N represents the number of data values in a population
Notation
x is pronounced ‘x-bar’ and denotes the mean of a set
of sample values
x
x =
n
Notation
x is pronounced ‘x-bar’ and denotes the mean of a set
of sample values
x
x =
n
µ is pronounced ‘mu’ and denotes the mean of all values
x
in a population
µ =
N
Calculators can calculate the mean of data
Definitions
 Median
the middle value when the original
data values are arranged in order of
increasing (or decreasing) magnitude
Definitions
 Median
~
 often denoted by x (pronounced ‘x-tilde’)
Definitions
 Median
~
 often denoted by x (pronounced ‘x-tilde’)
 is not affected by an extreme value
6.72 3.46 3.60 6.44
3.46 3.60 6.44 6.72
(even number of values)
no exact middle -- shared by two numbers
3.60 + 6.44
2
MEDIAN is 5.02
6.72 3.46 3.60 6.44
3.46 3.60 6.44 6.72
(even number of values)
no exact middle -- shared by two numbers
3.60 + 6.44
2
MEDIAN is 5.02
6.72 3.46 3.60 6.44 26.70

3.46 3.60 6.44 6.72 26.70
(in order - odd number of values)
exact middle MEDIAN is 6.44

Definitions
 Mode
the score that occurs most frequently
Bimodal
Multimodal
No Mode
denoted by M
the only measure of central tendency that can be
used with nominal data
Examples
a. 5 5 5 3 1 5 1 4 3 5 Mode is 5
b. 1 2 2 2 3 4 5 6 6 6 7 9 Bimodal - 2 and 6
c. 1 2 3 6 7 8 9 10 No Mode
Definitions
 Midrange
the value midway between the
highest and lowest values in the
original data set
Definitions
 Midrange
the value midway between the
highest and lowest values in the
original data set
highest score + lowest score
Midrange =
2
Round-off Rule for
Measures of Center
Carry one more decimal place than is
present in the original set of values
Mean from a Frequency Table
use class midpoint of classes for variable x
 (f • x)
x = Formula 2-2
f
 (f • x)
x = Formula 2-2
f
x = class midpoint
f = frequency
f=n
Weighted Mean
 (w • x)
x =
w
Definitions
 Symmetric
Data is symmetric if the left half of its
histogram is roughly a mirror of its
right half.
 Skewed
Data is skewed if it is not symmetric
and if it extends more to one side than
the other.
Skewness
Figure
2-13 (b)
Mode = Mean = Median

SYMMETRIC
Skewness
Figure
2-13 (b)

SYMMETRIC
Mean Mode
Median
Figure
2-13 (a)
SKEWED LEFT
(negatively)
Skewness
Figure
2-13 (b)

SYMMETRIC
Mean Mode Mode Mean

Median Median
Figure
2-13 (a)
SKEWED LEFT SKEWED RIGHT Figure
(negatively) (positively) 2-13 (c)
Section 2-5 Measures of Variation

Chapter 2. Section 2-1 and 2-2. Triola, Elementary Statistics, Eighth Edition. Copyright 2001. Addison Wesley LongmanEDITION 67
Waiting Times of Bank Customers
at Different Banks
in minutes
Jefferson Valley Bank 6.5 6.6 6.7 6.8 7.1 7.3 7.4 7.7 7.7 7.7
Bank of Providence 4.2 5.4 5.8 6.2 6.7 7.7 7.7 8.5 9.3 10.0
Waiting Times of Bank Customers
at Different Banks
in minutes
Jefferson Valley Bank 6.5 6.6 6.7 6.8 7.1 7.3 7.4 7.7 7.7 7.7
Bank of Providence 4.2 5.4 5.8 6.2 6.7 7.7 7.7 8.5 9.3 10.0
Jefferson Valley Bank Bank of Providence
Mean 7.15 7.15
Median 7.20 7.20
Mode 7.7 7.7
Midrange 7.10 7.10
Dotplots of Waiting Times
Figure 2-14
Measures of Variation
Range
highest lowest
value value
Standard Deviation
a measure of variation of the scores
about the mean
(average deviation from the mean)
Sample Standard Deviation
Formula
Formula
 (x - x) 2
s=
n-1
Formula 2-4
calculators can compute the

sample standard deviation of data
Shortcut Formula
n (x ) - (x) 2 2
s=
n (n - 1)
Formula 2-5

sample standard deviation of data
Mean Deviation Formula
(absolute deviation)
Mean Absolute Deviation
Formula
 x-x
n
Population Standard Deviation
 (x - µ) 2
 = N
population standard deviation
of data
Symbols
for Standard Deviation
Symbols
Sample
Symbols
Sample
s
Symbols
Sample
Textbook
s
Symbols
Sample
Textbook
s
Sx
Symbols
Sample
Textbook
s
Some graphics
calculators
Sx
Symbols
Sample
Textbook
s
Some graphics
calculators
Sx
xn-1
Symbols
Sample
Textbook
s
Some graphics
calculators
Sx
Some xn-1
non-graphics
calculators
Symbols
Sample Population
Textbook
s
Some graphics
calculators
Sx
Some xn-1
non-graphics
calculators
Symbols
Sample Population
Textbook
s 
Some graphics
calculators
Sx x
Some xn-1 xn
non-graphics
calculators
Symbols
Sample Population
Textbook
s  Book
Some graphics
calculators
Sx x Some graphics
calculators
Some xn-1 xn Some

non-graphics non-graphics
calculators calculators
Symbols
Sample Population
Textbook
s  Book
Some graphics
calculators
Sx x Some graphics
calculators
Some xn-1 xn Some

non-graphics non-graphics
calculators calculators
Articles in professional journals and reports often use

SD for standard deviation and VAR for variance.
Variance
Variance
standard deviation squared
Variance
standard deviation squared
Notation
} s 2
use square key
 2 on calculator
Variance
2  (x - x ) 2
Sample
s =
n-1 Variance
 (x - µ) 2
 2
= Population
N Variance
Round-off Rule
for measures of variation
Carry one more decimal place than

is present in the original set of
values.
Round only the final answer, never in the

middle of a calculation.
Standard Deviation from a
Frequency Table
Formula 2-6
n [(f • x 2)] -[(f • x)]2

S= n (n - 1)
Use the class midpoints as the x values
Calculators can compute the standard deviation for

frequency table
Estimation of Standard Deviation
Range Rule of Thumb
x - 2s x x + 2s
(minimum (maximum usual

value)
Range  4s
usual value)
or
Range Rule of Thumb
x - 2s x x + 2s

value)
Range  4s
usual value)
or
Range
s
4
Range Rule of Thumb
x - 2s x x + 2s

value)
Range  4s
usual value)
or
Range highest value - lowest value
s =
4 4
Usual Sample Values
Usual Sample Values
minimum ‘usual’ value  (mean) - 2 (standard deviation)
minimum  x - 2(s)
Usual Sample Values
minimum ‘usual’ value  (mean) - 2 (standard deviation)
minimum  x - 2(s)
maximum ‘usual’ value  (mean) + 2 (standard deviation)
maximum  x + 2(s)
The Empirical Rule
FIGURE 2-15 (applies to bell-shaped distributions)
x
The Empirical Rule
68% within
1 standard deviation
34% 34%
x- s x x+ s
The Empirical Rule
95% within
2 standard deviations
68% within
34% 34%
13.5% 13.5%
x - 2s x-s x x+s x + 2s
The Empirical Rule
99.7% of data are within 3 standard deviations of the mean
95% within
2 standard deviations
68% within
34% 34%
2.4% 2.4%
0.1% 0.1%
13.5% 13.5%
x - 3s x - 2s x-s x x+s x + 2s x + 3s
Chebyshev’s Theorem
 applies to distributions of any shape.
 the proportion (or fraction) of any set of

data lying within K standard deviations of
2
the mean is always at least 1 - 1/K , where K is
any positive number greater than 1.
 at least 3/4 (75%) of all values lie within

2 standard deviations of the mean.
 at least 8/9 (89%) of all values lie within

3 standard deviations of the mean.
Measures of Variation Summary
For typical data sets, it is unusual for a

score to differ from the mean by more than
2 or 3 standard deviations.
Section 2-6 Measures of Position

EDITION
Measures of Position
 z Score (or standard score)

the number of standard deviations
that a given value x is above or below
the mean
z score
Sample
x
z= s- x
z score
Sample Population
x - x z= x - µ
z= s 
z score
Sample Population
x - x z= x - µ
z= s 
Round to 2 decimal places
FIGURE 2-16
Interpreting Z Scores
Unusual Ordinary Unusual

Values Values Values
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3
Z
Quartiles, Deciles,
Percentiles
Quartiles
Quartiles
Q1, Q2, Q3
Quartiles
Q1, Q2, Q3
divides ranked scores into four equal parts
Quartiles
Q1, Q2, Q3
25% 25% 25% 25%
Q1 Q2 Q3
Quartiles
Q1, Q2, Q3
25% 25% 25% 25%
(minimum)
Q1 Q2 Q3 (maximum)
(median)
Deciles
D1, D2, D3, D4, D5, D6, D7, D8, D9
divides ranked data into ten equal parts
Deciles
D1, D2, D3, D4, D5, D6, D7, D8, D9
divides ranked data into ten equal parts
10% 10% 10% 10% 10% 10% 10% 10% 10% 10%
D1 D2 D3 D4 D5 D6 D7 D8 D9
Percentiles
99 Percentiles
Quartiles, Deciles, Percentiles
Fractiles
Quartiles, Deciles, Percentiles
Fractiles
(Quantiles)
partitions data into approximately equal parts
Finding the Percentile of a
Given Score
Finding the Percentile of a
Given Score
number of scores less than x

Percentile of score x = • 100
total number of scores
Finding the Score
Given a Percentile
Finding the Score
Given a Percentile
n total number of values in the data set

k percentile being used
k
L= 100
•n L locator that gives the position of a value
Pk kth percentile
Start
Sort the data.

(Arrange the data in
Finding the Value
order of lowest to
highest.)
of the
Compute kth Percentile
L= k ( n ) where
100
n = number of values
k = percentile in question
The value of the kth percentile
is midway between the Lth value
Is and the next value in the
L a whole Yes sorted set of data. Find Pk by
number adding the L th value and the
?
next value and dividing the
No
total by 2.
Change L by rounding
it up to the next
larger whole number.
Figure 2-17
The value of Pk is the
Lth value, counting
from 2-1
Chapter 2. Section theand
lowest
2-2. Triola, Elementary Statistics, Eighth Edition. Copyright 2001. Addison Wesley Longman 132
Quartiles
Q1 = P25
Q2 = P50
Q3 = P75
Quartiles Deciles
Q1 = P25 D1 = P10
D2 = P20
Q2 = P50
D3 = P30
Q3 = P75 •
•
•
D9 = P90
Interquartile Range (or IQR): Q3 - Q1
Semi-interquartile Range: Q3 - Q1
2
2
Midquartile: Q1 + Q3
2
2
Midquartile: Q1 + Q3
2
10 - 90 Percentile Range: P90 - P10
Section 2-7 Exploratory Data Analysis (EDA)

EDITION
Exploratory Data Analysis
the process of using statistical tools

(such as graphs, measures of center,
and measures of variation) to investigate
the data sets in order to understand
their important characteristics
Outliers
 a value located very far away from
almost all of the other values
 an extreme value
 can have a dramatic effect on the
mean, standard deviation, and on the
scale of the histogram so that the
true nature of the distribution is
totally obscured
Boxplots
(Box-and-Whisker Diagram)
Reveals the:
 center of the data
 spread of the data
 distribution of the data
 presence of outliers
Excellent for comparing two
or more data sets
Boxplots
5 - number summary
 Minimum
 first quartile Q1
 Median (Q2)
 third quartile Q3
 Maximum
Boxplots
2 4 6
0 14
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
Figure 2-18 Boxplot of Qwerty Word Ratings
Figure 2-19 Boxplots
Bell-Shaped
Bell-Shaped Uniform
Bell-Shaped Uniform Skewed
Exploring
 Measures of center: mean, median, and mode
 Measures of variation: Standard deviation and
range
 Measures of spread and relative

location: minimum values, maximum value, and
quartiles
 Unusual values: outliers

 Distribution: histograms, stem-leaf plots, and
boxplots

Chapter 2 Descriptive Statistics (Week 3)

Hochgeladen von

Dokumentinformationen

Originaltitel

Copyright

Verfügbare Formate

Dieses Dokument teilen

Dokument teilen oder einbetten

Freigabeoptionen

Stufen Sie dieses Dokument als nützlich ein?

Sind diese Inhalte unangemessen?

Copyright:

Verfügbare Formate

Chapter 2 Descriptive Statistics (Week 3)

Hochgeladen von

Copyright:

Verfügbare Formate

ELEMENTARY STATISTICS

Chapter 2 Descriptive Statistics

MARIO F. TRIOLA EIGHTH

2. Variation: A measure of the amount that the values

3. Distribution: The nature or shape of the distribution

4. Outliers: Sample values that lie very far away from

5. Time: Changing characteristics of the data over

1. Be sure that the classes are mutually exclusive.

2. Include all classes, even if the frequency is zero.

3. Try to use the same width for all classes.

4. Select convenient numbers for class limits.

5. Use between 5 and 20 classes.

6. The sum of the class frequencies must equal the

2. Determine the class width by dividing the range by the number

0-2 20 0-2 38.5% 20/52 = 38.5%

0-2 20 Less than 3 20

0-2 20 0-2 38.5% Less than 3 20

3-5 14 3-5 26.9% Less than 6 34

6-8 15 6-8 28.8% Less than 9 49

9 - 11 2 9 - 11 3.8% Less than 12 51

12 - 14 1 12 - 14 1.9% Less than 15 52

Table 2-3 Table 2-5 Table 2-6

MARIO F. TRIOLA EIGHTH

Figure 2-2 Figure 2-3

Raw Data (Test Grades)

Ingestion of food or object

 Boxplots (textbook section 2-7)

 Pattern of data over time

MARIO F. TRIOLA EIGHTH

x is the variable usually used to represent the individual

n represents the number of data values in a sample

N represents the number of data values in a population

 is not affected by an extreme value

6.72 3.46 3.60 6.44 26.70

exact middle MEDIAN is 6.44

use class midpoint of classes for variable x

use class midpoint of classes for variable x

use class midpoint of classes for variable x

Mode = Mean = Median

Mode = Mean = Median

Mode = Mean = Median

Mean Mode Mode Mean

MARIO F. TRIOLA EIGHTH

Jefferson Valley Bank Bank of Providence

Mean 7.15 7.15

Median 7.20 7.20

Mode 7.7 7.7

Midrange 7.10 7.10

(average deviation from the mean)

calculators can compute the

calculators can compute the

Some xn-1 xn Some

Some xn-1 xn Some

Articles in professional journals and reports often use

Carry one more decimal place than

Round only the final answer, never in the

n [(f • x 2)] -[(f • x)]2

Use the class midpoints as the x values

Calculators can compute the standard deviation for

(minimum (maximum usual

(minimum (maximum usual

(minimum (maximum usual

minimum ‘usual’ value  (mean) - 2 (standard deviation)